<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><rss xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/" xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/" xmlns:atom="http://www.w3.org/2005/Atom" version="2.0" xmlns:itunes="http://www.itunes.com/dtds/podcast-1.0.dtd" xmlns:googleplay="http://www.google.com/schemas/play-podcasts/1.0"><channel><title><![CDATA[Ahmed’s Substack]]></title><description><![CDATA[My personal Substack]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com</link><image><url>https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wUX3!,w_256,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2488468e-52ca-41d7-848f-0d402c54df7f_2316x3088.jpeg</url><title>Ahmed’s Substack</title><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com</link></image><generator>Substack</generator><lastBuildDate>Sat, 25 Jul 2026 09:03:07 GMT</lastBuildDate><atom:link href="https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/feed" rel="self" type="application/rss+xml"/><copyright><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></copyright><language><![CDATA[en]]></language><webMaster><![CDATA[ahmedgailani@substack.com]]></webMaster><itunes:owner><itunes:email><![CDATA[ahmedgailani@substack.com]]></itunes:email><itunes:name><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></itunes:name></itunes:owner><itunes:author><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></itunes:author><googleplay:owner><![CDATA[ahmedgailani@substack.com]]></googleplay:owner><googleplay:email><![CDATA[ahmedgailani@substack.com]]></googleplay:email><googleplay:author><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></googleplay:author><itunes:block><![CDATA[Yes]]></itunes:block><item><title><![CDATA[Energy System Modelling]]></title><description><![CDATA[a detailed perspective.]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/energy-system-modelling</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/energy-system-modelling</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 07 Jun 2026 19:27:24 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/38398f3b-c12b-4332-9040-ac8b5b7153f2_1200x630.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>Energy system modelling sits quietly behind many of the biggest decisions in the energy transition, yet it is often misunderstood.</p><p>It sits at the crossing point of engineering, economics, climate policy, finance, geography, politics, sociology, and public decision-making. It is rarely taught well because it is not one subject. It is a way of thinking across subjects. A good energy modeller has to understand fuels, power plants, grids, buildings, industry, transport, human behaviour, costs, constraints, uncertainty, and the uncomfortable fact that energy systems are physical systems embedded inside social systems.</p><p>This article is a guide to that way of thinking.</p><p>It does not start with software like TIMES, OSeMOSYS, MESSAGE, PRIMES, LEAP, or PyPSA. Those matter, but they are not the beginning. The beginning is <strong>the system</strong>.</p><p>People do not ultimately want oil, gas, coal, solar panels, hydrogen, electrons, or gigawatts. They want heat, light, cooling, communication, mobility, cooked food, clean water, industrial products, and comfort. Energy systems exist to convert resources into useful services. </p><p>Energy system modelling is the disciplined attempt to represent those conversions, choices, constraints, costs, and consequences clearly enough that we can learn something before the real world forces us to learn it expensively.</p><h3><strong>1. What energy system modelling is actually for?</strong></h3><p>An energy system model is not a machine that tells us what the future will be. And as G. Box tell &#8216;essentially, all models are wrong, but some are useful.&#8217;</p><p>It is a structured way of asking:</p><blockquote><p>Given these assumptions, these technologies, these costs, these demands, and these constraints, what system outcome is internally consistent?</p></blockquote><p>That sentence matters. If a model says solar generation rises sharply by 2040, it is not saying &#8220;this will definitely happen.&#8221; It is saying something more conditional:</p><blockquote><p>If demand follows this pathway, if technology costs evolve like this, if fuel prices look like this, if policy imposes this emissions constraint, if reliability is represented in this way, and if the model is asked to minimise this objective, then this is one system configuration that satisfies the assumptions.</p></blockquote><p>That is not prophecy. It is conditional reasoning.</p><p>The best short description is: an energy model is a disciplined &#8220;what if?&#8221; machine. Not casual what-if thinking, where assumptions float around invisibly, but disciplined what-if thinking where the assumptions are written down, the flows have to balance, the constraints have to be respected, and the consequences can be compared.</p><p>But this is also why systems modelling matters. The energy transition is not a single-technology problem. It is a system transformation happening under planetary limits, social constraints, geo-political influence, uncertainty, and time pressure. Carbon, water, land, biodiversity, energy security, affordability, industrial competitiveness, poverty reduction, and intergenerational fairness can pull decisions in different directions. A system model gives analysts a sandbox for testing counterfactuals before choices are made in the real world: what if fuel prices rise, what if demand falls, what if storage becomes cheaper, what if carbon is capped, what if a technology arrives late, what if a transmission corridor is unavailable?</p><p>That sandbox is powerful because it can expose interactions that are hard to see from individual project analysis. A solar plant may look cheap by itself, but the system question asks what happens to grids, storage, dispatchable capacity, curtailment, demand flexibility, and market revenues when many solar plants are built. An electric vehicle may look like a transport technology, but at system level it is also a battery, a new electricity load, a demand-flexibility opportunity, a distribution-network challenge, and a policy problem. </p><p><strong>Systems modelling is needed when the answer depends on how pieces interact.</strong></p><p>Imagine the UK government asks:</p><blockquote><p>If electricity demand rises, gas prices become volatile, carbon emissions must fall, and solar and batteries keep getting cheaper, what mix of generation, grids, storage, efficiency, and demand flexibility could meet demand at acceptable cost?</p></blockquote><p>That question cannot be answered properly by opinion alone. It involves demand, capacity, hourly variation, geography, fuel prices, technology costs, emissions, reserve margins, infrastructure lead times, and policy constraints. A model does not remove judgement from the problem. It makes the judgement visible.</p><p>This is why many modelling lectures repeat a warning in different language: models are simplifications of reality, and their main value is <strong>insight</strong>. Energy planning is not about predicting the future. It is about evaluating possible futures in a transparent way.</p><p>Below I try to illustrate visually the logical steps of an energy model:</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JQy4!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3118393-c230-4b2e-a38f-cc226a36c8cf_2310x1044.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JQy4!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3118393-c230-4b2e-a38f-cc226a36c8cf_2310x1044.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JQy4!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3118393-c230-4b2e-a38f-cc226a36c8cf_2310x1044.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JQy4!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3118393-c230-4b2e-a38f-cc226a36c8cf_2310x1044.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JQy4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3118393-c230-4b2e-a38f-cc226a36c8cf_2310x1044.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JQy4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3118393-c230-4b2e-a38f-cc226a36c8cf_2310x1044.png" width="2310" height="1044" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/f3118393-c230-4b2e-a38f-cc226a36c8cf_2310x1044.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1044,&quot;width&quot;:2310,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:323755,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/200921915?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F12ee65f3-8b74-4ce8-a1f5-8f4e44f81404_2400x1350.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JQy4!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3118393-c230-4b2e-a38f-cc226a36c8cf_2310x1044.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JQy4!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3118393-c230-4b2e-a38f-cc226a36c8cf_2310x1044.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JQy4!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3118393-c230-4b2e-a38f-cc226a36c8cf_2310x1044.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JQy4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3118393-c230-4b2e-a38f-cc226a36c8cf_2310x1044.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3><strong>2. Define the energy system before defining the model</strong></h3><p>Before asking what an energy system model is, we need to ask what an energy system is.</p><p>An energy system is the chain of resources, technologies, infrastructure, markets, and behaviours that <strong>converts what nature provides into what people want.</strong></p><p>Nature provides coal, oil, gas, uranium, sunlight, wind, water flows, biomass, and geothermal heat. The energy sector extracts, imports, processes, converts, transports, stores, and distributes energy carriers. End-use technologies then convert those carriers into useful services.</p><p>The chain looks something like this:</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D4F4!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F064ae7eb-860a-465d-aa3d-9ce2218b94e1_2224x1086.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D4F4!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F064ae7eb-860a-465d-aa3d-9ce2218b94e1_2224x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D4F4!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F064ae7eb-860a-465d-aa3d-9ce2218b94e1_2224x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D4F4!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F064ae7eb-860a-465d-aa3d-9ce2218b94e1_2224x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D4F4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F064ae7eb-860a-465d-aa3d-9ce2218b94e1_2224x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D4F4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F064ae7eb-860a-465d-aa3d-9ce2218b94e1_2224x1086.png" width="2224" height="1086" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/064ae7eb-860a-465d-aa3d-9ce2218b94e1_2224x1086.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1086,&quot;width&quot;:2224,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:459320,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/200921915?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F96b34c90-c8b0-4da6-a7b2-50d4cb5cc04c_2400x1350.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D4F4!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F064ae7eb-860a-465d-aa3d-9ce2218b94e1_2224x1086.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D4F4!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F064ae7eb-860a-465d-aa3d-9ce2218b94e1_2224x1086.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D4F4!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F064ae7eb-860a-465d-aa3d-9ce2218b94e1_2224x1086.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!D4F4!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F064ae7eb-860a-465d-aa3d-9ce2218b94e1_2224x1086.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Bad energy debates often start too late in the chain. They ask, &#8220;Should we build more solar or more gas?&#8221; before asking, &#8220;What services are we trying to provide, where, when, at what reliability, with what acceptable cost, and under what environmental constraint?&#8221;</p><p>The model boundary matters. A power-sector model might represent generation and electricity demand in detail but ignore industry, transport, buildings, land use, and macroeconomic feedback. A whole-system model might include all sectors but represent each with less engineering detail. An integrated assessment model might connect energy with land, emissions, climate, and the economy, but at a much higher level of abstraction.</p><p><strong>There is no single correct boundary. There is only a boundary that is more or less fit for a question.</strong></p><p><strong>Example:</strong></p><p>Suppose a household uses electricity for lighting, refrigeration, cooling, cooking, internet, and charging devices. If we model &#8220;electricity demand&#8221; as one block, we may miss the fact that some demand is flexible, some is seasonal, some is essential, some can be reduced by efficient appliances, some can move to another hour, and some is linked to weather. If the question is national annual fuel use, a simple electricity-demand block might be enough. If the question is grid stress during winter evenings, it is not.</p><h3><strong>3. Why energy systems need models?</strong></h3><p>Energy systems are hard to reason about because they combine five difficult properties.</p><p>First, they are <strong>physical</strong>. Electricity supply and demand must balance continuously. Fuels have energy contents. Conversion losses are real. A gas turbine cannot produce more than its capacity. A solar plant does not generate at night. A transmission line cannot carry infinite power.</p><p>Second, they are <strong>capital intensive</strong>. Power stations, refineries, pipelines, grids, storage facilities, buildings, industrial plants, and transport infrastructure require large upfront investment.</p><p>Third, they are <strong>long lived</strong>. A building, grid line, pipeline, refinery, or power plant can shape the system for decades. A decision made under today&#8217;s political and price conditions can still matter in 2050.</p><p>Fourth, they are <strong>socially embedded</strong>. A technically attractive system can fail if households reject it, investors avoid it, regulators block it, communities oppose it, or institutions cannot deliver it.</p><p>Fifth, they are <strong>uncertain</strong>. Future demand, fuel prices, technology costs, policy choices, climate impacts, social acceptance, geopolitical risks, and financing conditions are all uncertain.</p><p>This is why intuition alone fails. It may be obvious that a low-carbon energy system needs more renewables. It is not obvious how much grid reinforcement, storage, flexible demand, firm capacity, interconnection, hydrogen, district heat, industrial electrification, or energy efficiency is needed under a specific set of assumptions. It is not obvious whether a policy reduces emissions by shifting fuel use, lowering demand, changing investment, or merely moving emissions somewhere else.</p><p>Energy system models became important because they let analysts organise these interactions. They do not remove uncertainty, but they let us explore it. They do not replace politics, but they can clarify trade-offs. </p><p>Moreover, systems models let us study situations where real-world experimentation is impossible. They can be queried with counterfactual scenarios, sampled repeatedly for sensitivity to input data, or optimised for least cost, maximum resilience, or another objective. That is exactly the kind of tool needed when decision-makers face uncertain weather, uncertain policy, changing consumer preferences, volatile fuel prices, and infrastructure choices that last for decades.</p><p>Another reason models are needed is <strong>accountability</strong>. Without a model, a policy argument can hide its assumptions in prose: &#8220;renewables will be cheap&#8221;, &#8220;hydrogen will be available&#8221;, &#8220;demand will fall&#8221;, &#8220;gas will remain affordable&#8221;, &#8220;people will change behaviour&#8221;. A model forces these claims to become numbers, constraints, flows, costs, and scenarios. The model may still be wrong, but its wrongness becomes inspectable.</p><p><strong>Finally, models are important because they influence investments and regulation.</strong> </p><p>Climate modelling makes this especially clear. The Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP), for example, coordinates common experiments across climate-modelling centres so that results can be compared and assessed; these projections are widely used in climate science and policy and underpin IPCC assessments. </p><p>Once CMIP model results enter assessments, regulation, finance, infrastructure planning, insurance, adaptation policy, and estimates of future climate damages to GDP, they become part of how governments and markets allocate real capital. Even critics of climate-scenario governance make the same deeper point: the choice of scenarios and modelling assumptions can influence research priorities, policy debates, regulation, and investment at enormous scale. This is why models are not just technical artefacts. When they inform decisions involving trillions of dollars, long-lived infrastructure, future economic damages, and public regulation, model design becomes <strong>a form of institutional power</strong>. Transparency, assumptions, validation, and scenario plausibility are therefore not academic housekeeping; they are central to responsible decision-making.</p><h3><strong>4. The energy trilemma and the modelling question</strong></h3><p>Modelling begins with <strong>a question</strong>, not software and you will never run out of questions!</p><p>Most energy-system questions sit somewhere inside the energy trilemma:</p><ul><li><p>Security: is supply reliable, sufficient, resilient, and geopolitically robust?</p></li><li><p>Affordability: can households, firms, and governments pay for it?</p></li><li><p>Environmental performance: does the system reduce greenhouse gases, local pollution, and other environmental harms?</p></li></ul><p>These objectives are connected, but they are not identical. A system can be cheap and dirty. It can be clean and expensive. It can be secure but inefficient. It can be low cost in the model but politically impossible in practice. The modeller has to know which question is being asked.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMGb!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c298131-bf4b-4c2b-b31a-d05eb5c03800_2126x1155.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMGb!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c298131-bf4b-4c2b-b31a-d05eb5c03800_2126x1155.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMGb!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c298131-bf4b-4c2b-b31a-d05eb5c03800_2126x1155.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMGb!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c298131-bf4b-4c2b-b31a-d05eb5c03800_2126x1155.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMGb!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c298131-bf4b-4c2b-b31a-d05eb5c03800_2126x1155.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMGb!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c298131-bf4b-4c2b-b31a-d05eb5c03800_2126x1155.png" width="1456" height="791" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/6c298131-bf4b-4c2b-b31a-d05eb5c03800_2126x1155.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:791,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:361214,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/200921915?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2f5b38dd-b72c-4413-b20c-5bf278cfa9eb_2400x1350.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMGb!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c298131-bf4b-4c2b-b31a-d05eb5c03800_2126x1155.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMGb!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c298131-bf4b-4c2b-b31a-d05eb5c03800_2126x1155.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMGb!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c298131-bf4b-4c2b-b31a-d05eb5c03800_2126x1155.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JMGb!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6c298131-bf4b-4c2b-b31a-d05eb5c03800_2126x1155.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Consider three questions:</p><ol><li><p>What is the least-cost electricity generation mix?</p></li><li><p>What system can meet winter peak demand reliably?</p></li><li><p>What policy package is politically and institutionally feasible?</p></li></ol><p>These are not the same modelling problem. The first might be answered with a long-term capacity expansion model. The second may need detailed temporal resolution and reliability constraints. The third may require political economy, stakeholder engagement, behavioural assumptions, and institutional realism.</p><p><strong>Example: Three valid questions, three different models</strong></p><p>For decarbonising heat:</p><ul><li><p>An engineering model may ask which heat technologies can technically satisfy heat demand.</p></li><li><p>An economic model may ask how prices, subsidies, or fuel taxes influence adoption.</p></li><li><p>A behavioural model may ask whether households accept disruption, upfront costs, and perceived risk.</p></li></ul><p>All three are useful. None is complete alone.</p><h2><strong>5. The main families of energy models</strong></h2><p>Once the system and question are clear, we can talk about model families.</p><p>At the highest level, energy models are often described as top-down, bottom-up, or hybrid.</p><p><strong>Top-down</strong> models start from the economy. They represent broad sectors and macroeconomic relationships, often using input-output structures, econometrics, or general equilibrium methods. They are useful for questions about GDP, prices, income, competitiveness, sectoral feedback, and economy-wide policy effects. Their weakness is that they often represent energy technologies in less physical detail.</p><p><strong>Bottom-up</strong> models start from technologies and energy flows. They represent power plants, vehicles, boilers, industrial processes, fuels, conversion efficiencies, costs, emissions, and resource potentials. They are useful for studying technology choices, infrastructure pathways, emissions reduction, and system costs. Their weakness is that they can be too optimistic if they assume technologies are adopted whenever they are cost-effective, ignoring behavioural and institutional barriers.</p><p><strong>Hybrid</strong> models try to link the two: technological detail from bottom-up models with wider economic feedback from top-down approaches. The ambition is attractive. The implementation is difficult.</p><p>Models can also be grouped by <strong>method</strong>:</p><ul><li><p><strong>Accounting</strong> models describe energy balances and emissions under user-defined assumptions.</p></li><li><p><strong>Simulation</strong> models reproduce system behaviour under decision rules.</p></li><li><p><strong>Optimisation</strong> models select decisions that maximise or minimise an objective under constraints.</p></li><li><p><strong>Equilibrium</strong> models solve for a state where interacting agents or markets balance supply and demand.</p></li><li><p><strong>Dispatch</strong> models focus on short-term operation.</p></li><li><p><strong>Capacity-expansion</strong> or investment models focus on long-term build-out.</p></li><li><p><strong>Integrated assessment models (IAMs)</strong> link energy, economy, land, emissions, and climate outcomes.</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Cun!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0f21e22b-7db1-4c5b-b8e0-aed27cc01a77_2268x1089.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Cun!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0f21e22b-7db1-4c5b-b8e0-aed27cc01a77_2268x1089.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Cun!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0f21e22b-7db1-4c5b-b8e0-aed27cc01a77_2268x1089.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Cun!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0f21e22b-7db1-4c5b-b8e0-aed27cc01a77_2268x1089.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Cun!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0f21e22b-7db1-4c5b-b8e0-aed27cc01a77_2268x1089.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Cun!,w_2400,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0f21e22b-7db1-4c5b-b8e0-aed27cc01a77_2268x1089.png" width="1200" height="576.1904761904761" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0f21e22b-7db1-4c5b-b8e0-aed27cc01a77_2268x1089.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:false,&quot;imageSize&quot;:&quot;large&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:1089,&quot;width&quot;:2268,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:1200,&quot;bytes&quot;:512564,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/200921915?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe8aed4cf-0c1c-4453-b1a6-d99648bf5a32_2400x1350.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:&quot;center&quot;,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-large" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Cun!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0f21e22b-7db1-4c5b-b8e0-aed27cc01a77_2268x1089.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Cun!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0f21e22b-7db1-4c5b-b8e0-aed27cc01a77_2268x1089.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Cun!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0f21e22b-7db1-4c5b-b8e0-aed27cc01a77_2268x1089.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_Cun!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0f21e22b-7db1-4c5b-b8e0-aed27cc01a77_2268x1089.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>When a bottom-up optimiser says a technology is chosen, it usually means the technology helps satisfy the objective and constraints. When an equilibrium model gives a price, it reflects a representation of market balance. When an accounting model shows an emissions pathway, it may be applying externally chosen activity and technology assumptions. When an IAM shows a 1.5C pathway, it is linking energy and land transformations to climate outcomes under a wider scenario structure.</p><p>There is a second layer to model families that is just as important: <strong>model design</strong>. This is especially visible in bottom-up and many hybrid models. A model can be bottom-up and still be very different depending on whether it covers one sector or all sectors, one country node or many connected regions, annual periods or hourly operation, simulation or optimisation, linear or nonlinear equations, perfect foresight or myopic decision-making.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xYai!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e7dc4a5-afdc-48b8-a38a-63ace5567cbe_2204x973.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xYai!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e7dc4a5-afdc-48b8-a38a-63ace5567cbe_2204x973.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xYai!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e7dc4a5-afdc-48b8-a38a-63ace5567cbe_2204x973.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xYai!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e7dc4a5-afdc-48b8-a38a-63ace5567cbe_2204x973.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xYai!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e7dc4a5-afdc-48b8-a38a-63ace5567cbe_2204x973.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xYai!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e7dc4a5-afdc-48b8-a38a-63ace5567cbe_2204x973.png" width="2204" height="973" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xYai!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e7dc4a5-afdc-48b8-a38a-63ace5567cbe_2204x973.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xYai!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e7dc4a5-afdc-48b8-a38a-63ace5567cbe_2204x973.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xYai!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e7dc4a5-afdc-48b8-a38a-63ace5567cbe_2204x973.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!xYai!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0e7dc4a5-afdc-48b8-a38a-63ace5567cbe_2204x973.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>These specifications decide what the model can see. A single-node model may be useful for national planning but weak for transmission bottlenecks. An annual model may be useful for long-term investment but weak for solar, wind, storage and peak demand. A perfect-foresight model may identify a clean long-term pathway but may overstate how much decision-makers know today. A mixed-integer formulation may represent yes/no decisions more realistically but may be harder to solve at large scale.</p><p>There is also a <strong>historical</strong> story here. Energy system modelling did not appear because academics wanted complicated diagrams. It grew out of practical crises and planning needs. </p><p>The early 1970s oil shocks pushed governments and research institutions to think systematically about fuel allocation, energy security, and uncertain futures. Reference Energy System ideas were developed at Brookhaven National Laboratory, and linear programming approaches helped represent energy flows and technology choices. </p><p>During the 1980s, models such as EFOM, MARKAL, MAED, and later TIMES helped formalise energy demand, supply, and power-sector planning. </p><p>In the 1990s, market-oriented and equilibrium models such as PRIMES and NEMS expanded the modelling landscape. Later, rising concerns about climate change, energy security, prices, and global demand pushed models toward wider sector coverage, long-term decarbonisation pathways, open-source tools, and fit-for-purpose design.</p><p><strong>Example: The same policy seen by different model families</strong></p><p>A carbon price can appear very differently across models:</p><ul><li><p>In a bottom-up optimisation model, it changes relative technology costs and may shift investment.</p></li><li><p>In a top-down model, it can affect prices, income, output, trade, and sectoral structure.</p></li><li><p>In a hybrid model, it may shift both technology deployment and macroeconomic outcomes.</p></li><li><p>In an IAM, it may be part of a pathway linking emissions to temperature outcomes.</p></li></ul><h3><strong>6. Energy balance and flows</strong></h3><p>Before there is optimisation, there is accounting or baselining. </p><p>Energy models must represent physical flows. Resources enter the system. Conversion technologies transform them. Losses occur. Energy carriers move through networks. Final energy reaches sectors. Useful services are produced.</p><p>This physical skeleton is often represented through an <strong>energy balance</strong> or a reference energy system. A Sankey diagram usually visualises the size of flows, making it easier to see where energy comes from, where it goes, and where it is lost.</p><p>Energy systems obey physical constraints. The first law of thermodynamics is not a policy preference. Energy is converted, not created from nothing. A power plant converts fuel into electricity and losses. </p><p>Modelling begins by respecting this skeleton.</p><p><strong>Example: Oil, gas, electricity, and useful services</strong></p><p>Oil may be refined into petrol, diesel, kerosene, or fuel oil. Gas may go to power generation, industry, heating, or feedstock. Electricity may serve buildings, industry, transport, and communications. Some energy is lost in conversion and networks. Some is transformed into useful work, heat, cooling, or light. A Sankey diagram lets the reader see this in one image.</p><p>For reference, this is the UK&#8217;s system balance in 2023 which can be used as the baseline for system modelling (source IEA, interactively <a href="https://www.iea.org/data-and-statistics/data-tools/energy-sankey">here</a>).</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9cWQ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fabab4d23-52c0-4cb2-9279-f9b8791b7483_1417x699.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9cWQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fabab4d23-52c0-4cb2-9279-f9b8791b7483_1417x699.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9cWQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fabab4d23-52c0-4cb2-9279-f9b8791b7483_1417x699.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9cWQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fabab4d23-52c0-4cb2-9279-f9b8791b7483_1417x699.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9cWQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fabab4d23-52c0-4cb2-9279-f9b8791b7483_1417x699.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9cWQ!,w_2400,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fabab4d23-52c0-4cb2-9279-f9b8791b7483_1417x699.png" width="1200" height="591.954834156669" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/abab4d23-52c0-4cb2-9279-f9b8791b7483_1417x699.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:false,&quot;imageSize&quot;:&quot;large&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:699,&quot;width&quot;:1417,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:1200,&quot;bytes&quot;:230657,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/200921915?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F604f5a9f-033b-4192-b881-1372d69198ec_1417x699.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:&quot;center&quot;,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-large" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9cWQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fabab4d23-52c0-4cb2-9279-f9b8791b7483_1417x699.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9cWQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fabab4d23-52c0-4cb2-9279-f9b8791b7483_1417x699.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9cWQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fabab4d23-52c0-4cb2-9279-f9b8791b7483_1417x699.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!9cWQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fabab4d23-52c0-4cb2-9279-f9b8791b7483_1417x699.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div 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stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3><strong>7. The mathematical core</strong></h3><p>Now we can open the mathematical box, which is the heart of energy system modelling. </p><p>A model usually contains:</p><ul><li><p>Variables: things the model can choose or calculate.</p></li><li><p>Parameters: input assumptions given to the model.</p></li><li><p>Constraints: rules that must be satisfied.</p></li><li><p>An objective function: something to minimise or maximise (for optimisation models)</p></li></ul><p>In many bottom-up energy-system optimisation models, the objective is to minimise total discounted system cost while meeting energy-service demand and respecting constraints.</p><p>The cost might include capital investment, fixed and variable operation and maintenance, fuel purchases, imports, taxes, subsidies, carbon prices, emission penalties, and other system costs. The constraints might include demand satisfaction, capacity limits, resource potentials, capacity factors, reserve margins, emissions caps, build-rate limits, technology lifetimes, storage balance, and policy targets.</p><p>That sounds abstract, so let us start with a carpenter.</p><p><strong>Example 1: The carpenter problem</strong></p><p>A carpenter can make chairs and tables. A table uses 4 pieces of wood, takes 3 hours to make, and gives $50 profit. A chair uses 2 pieces of wood, takes 1 hour to make, and gives $20 profit. This week, the workshop has 60 pieces of wood and 40 working hours.</p><p>The question is simple: how many tables and chairs should the carpenter make so that wood and labour are not exceeded, while total profit is as high as possible?</p><p>This is a linear programming problem. The decision variables are the number of chairs and tables. The constraints are wood and labour. The objective is profit. The feasible region is the set of production combinations that do not exceed the available resources. The optimum is the best point inside that feasible region.</p><p>Let:</p><p><code>T = number of tables<br>C = number of chairs</code></p><p>The model is:</p><p><code>Maximise profit:  P = 50T + 20C<br><br>Subject to:<br>Wood:    4T + 2C &lt;= 60<br>Labour:  3T +  C &lt;= 40<br>T &gt;= 0, C &gt;= 0</code></p><p>Graphically, each constraint becomes a line. The area that satisfies both constraints is the feasible region. The best answer is the feasible point reached by the highest profit line. In this example, the optimum is 10 tables and 10 chairs, giving:</p><p><code>Profit = 50(10) + 20(10) = $700</code></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!133q!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb3f61b-551b-4a02-ab44-d9820220b8b0_2255x1063.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!133q!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb3f61b-551b-4a02-ab44-d9820220b8b0_2255x1063.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!133q!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb3f61b-551b-4a02-ab44-d9820220b8b0_2255x1063.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!133q!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb3f61b-551b-4a02-ab44-d9820220b8b0_2255x1063.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!133q!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb3f61b-551b-4a02-ab44-d9820220b8b0_2255x1063.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!133q!,w_2400,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb3f61b-551b-4a02-ab44-d9820220b8b0_2255x1063.png" width="1200" height="565.6762749445676" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!133q!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb3f61b-551b-4a02-ab44-d9820220b8b0_2255x1063.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!133q!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb3f61b-551b-4a02-ab44-d9820220b8b0_2255x1063.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!133q!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb3f61b-551b-4a02-ab44-d9820220b8b0_2255x1063.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!133q!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7fb3f61b-551b-4a02-ab44-d9820220b8b0_2255x1063.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p><strong>Example 2: The energy-system equivalent</strong></p><p>A national electricity system can build solar, wind, gas, batteries, grid reinforcement, and efficiency. Solar and wind have variable output. Gas has fuel cost and emissions. Batteries shift electricity but do not create it. Grid reinforcement allows remote generation to reach demand. Efficiency reduces useful energy requirements. The system must meet demand, respect emissions limits, satisfy reliability requirements, and stay within technology/resource limits.</p><p>Now the variables are capacity, generation, storage charge/discharge, fuel use, imports, and perhaps demand reduction. The constraints are energy balance, capacity availability, emissions, reserves, resource limits, and policy rules. The objective might be least total discounted cost.</p><p>This is why &#8220;the model chose solar&#8221; is shorthand. More precisely, the solution found that, under the assumed costs, resources, demand, policy constraints, and mathematical structure, solar capacity was part of the least-cost feasible system.</p><p><strong>Tiny illustrative code snippet</strong></p><p>This is not the article&#8217;s main teaching device, but a small code box can help readers see that optimisation is not magic:</p><p><code># Toy resource-allocation problem</code></p><p><code># Maximise profit from chairs and tables subject to wood and labour.</code></p><p><code>import pulp as pl</code></p><p><code>model = pl.LpProblem("carpenter", pl.LpMaximize)</code></p><p><code>tables = pl.LpVariable("tables", lowBound=0)</code></p><p><code>chairs = pl.LpVariable("chairs", lowBound=0)</code></p><p><code># Profit per unit</code></p><p><code>model += 50 * tables + 20 * chairs</code></p><p><code># Resource constraints</code></p><p><code>model += 4 * tables + 2 * chairs &lt;= 60   # wood</code></p><p><code>model += 3 * tables + chairs &lt;= 40       # labour</code></p><p><code>model.solve()</code></p><p><code>print(tables.value(), chairs.value(), pl.value(model.objective))</code></p><p>Then translate the same logic:</p><p><code>chairs/tables       -&gt; solar/wind/gas/storage/efficiency<br>wood/labour         -&gt; land/resource/capital/grid/fuel limits<br>profit              -&gt; cost, emissions, or welfare objective<br>production mix      -&gt; energy-system pathway</code></p><p></p><h4><strong>Why linearity matters?</strong></h4><p>Many energy-system models are formulated as linear or mixed-integer linear programmes. That is not only a mathematical preference. It is a practical compromise.</p><p>Linear models are attractive because they can be solved efficiently and, in many cases, exactly. The solver can prove that it has found the best solution according to the objective and constraints. Linear models are also memory-efficient enough to represent large systems with many technologies, regions, time periods, commodities, and constraints. That is one reason they became so important in energy planning.</p><p>But linearity has consequences.</p><p>In a linear model, marginal costs are usually constant unless the modeller adds piecewise segments. Economies of scale, learning, congestion, market power, profitability, price formation, and strategic behaviour are not automatically represented. If cost is linear, doubling output doubles variable cost. If a technology has a nonlinear cost curve, the modeller has to approximate it. If price depends on quantity, and revenue is price multiplied by quantity, that multiplication is nonlinear and cannot simply be dropped into a linear model without reformulation.</p><p>This matters for interpretation. A least-cost investment model may build a large amount of zero-marginal-cost renewable capacity because it reduces system cost. But in an actual market, that same build-out can reduce wholesale prices during sunny or windy hours and erode the revenues of the very assets the model builds. The system-cost optimum and the private-investor business case are not always the same object.</p><p>So linearity is a bargain: it gives tractability, scale, and clear optimisation, but it asks the modeller to be honest about what economic and physical behaviour has been simplified. A linear model is not weak because it is linear. It becomes weak when readers forget what linearity excludes.</p><p>The carpenter example shows the basic optimisation logic. Real energy-system questions then branch into several mathematical forms (see below). The formulation follows the question:</p><ul><li><p>If the question is &#8220;what should we build?&#8221;, the formulation is often capacity-expansion optimisation.</p></li><li><p>If the question is &#8220;what should run this hour?&#8221;, it is often dispatch or unit commitment.</p></li><li><p>If the question is &#8220;what price clears the market?&#8221;, equilibrium or complementarity methods may be appropriate.</p></li><li><p>If the question is &#8220;what would decision-makers do with limited foresight?&#8221;, a myopic recursive formulation may be used.</p></li><li><p>If the question is &#8220;what if the future branches?&#8221;, stochastic optimisation may be used.</p></li><li><p>If the question has competing objectives, multi-objective methods or Pareto analysis may be needed.</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CUtI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5419e89-c8ff-472c-95e5-0d4bcd8a6b35_2192x1000.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CUtI!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5419e89-c8ff-472c-95e5-0d4bcd8a6b35_2192x1000.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CUtI!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5419e89-c8ff-472c-95e5-0d4bcd8a6b35_2192x1000.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CUtI!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5419e89-c8ff-472c-95e5-0d4bcd8a6b35_2192x1000.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CUtI!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5419e89-c8ff-472c-95e5-0d4bcd8a6b35_2192x1000.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CUtI!,w_2400,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5419e89-c8ff-472c-95e5-0d4bcd8a6b35_2192x1000.png" width="1200" height="547.4452554744526" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CUtI!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5419e89-c8ff-472c-95e5-0d4bcd8a6b35_2192x1000.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CUtI!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5419e89-c8ff-472c-95e5-0d4bcd8a6b35_2192x1000.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CUtI!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5419e89-c8ff-472c-95e5-0d4bcd8a6b35_2192x1000.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!CUtI!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff5419e89-c8ff-472c-95e5-0d4bcd8a6b35_2192x1000.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3><strong>8. The resolution problem</strong></h3><p>The most detailed model is not automatically the best model.</p><p>Every model has a resolution. It can be high or low in <strong>time, space, technology detail, sector coupling, and behaviour</strong>. A modeller cannot represent everything at maximum detail without paying a price in data, computation, validation, and communication. <strong>The skill is deciding where fidelity matters for the question.</strong></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!giZa!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1f873907-6a89-4483-802f-f1e645183455_2379x1459.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!giZa!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1f873907-6a89-4483-802f-f1e645183455_2379x1459.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!giZa!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1f873907-6a89-4483-802f-f1e645183455_2379x1459.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!giZa!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1f873907-6a89-4483-802f-f1e645183455_2379x1459.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!giZa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1f873907-6a89-4483-802f-f1e645183455_2379x1459.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!giZa!,w_2400,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1f873907-6a89-4483-802f-f1e645183455_2379x1459.png" width="1200" height="735.9394703656999" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1f873907-6a89-4483-802f-f1e645183455_2379x1459.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:false,&quot;imageSize&quot;:&quot;large&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:1459,&quot;width&quot;:2379,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:1200,&quot;bytes&quot;:541522,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Adopted from Prina et al, 2020.&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/200921915?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa7ad0f3a-69b0-4797-8347-def525814d57_2400x1600.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:&quot;center&quot;,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-large" alt="Adopted from Prina et al, 2020." title="Adopted from Prina et al, 2020." srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!giZa!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1f873907-6a89-4483-802f-f1e645183455_2379x1459.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!giZa!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1f873907-6a89-4483-802f-f1e645183455_2379x1459.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!giZa!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1f873907-6a89-4483-802f-f1e645183455_2379x1459.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!giZa!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1f873907-6a89-4483-802f-f1e645183455_2379x1459.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p></p><p>Temporal resolution asks: does the model see annual totals, seasons, representative days, hours, or sub-hourly operation?</p><p>Spatial resolution asks: does the model treat the world as one region, a country as one node, a country as several zones, or a grid as many connected buses? Many system models are built as networks of nodes. A node might represent a real geography, such as a country, province, grid zone, industrial cluster, port, or demand centre. It can also represent a figurative market node, such as an import/export market.</p><p>Technology resolution asks: does the model have one generic &#8220;gas plant&#8221; or distinguish open-cycle turbines, combined-cycle plants, CHP, hydrogen-ready turbines, plant vintages, efficiencies, ramping limits, and emissions rates?</p><p>Sectoral resolution asks: does the model cover only electricity, or electricity plus heat, transport, buildings, industry, hydrogen, land, and fuels?</p><p>Behavioural resolution asks: does demand respond mechanically to prices, or are households, firms, and institutions represented with heterogeneity and non-cost barriers?</p><p>Higher resolution can reveal things that lower resolution hides. Hourly modelling can show the value of storage, flexibility, and firm capacity in a renewable-heavy power system. Spatial modelling can show grid bottlenecks. Sector coupling can show the interaction between electric vehicles, heat pumps, hydrogen, and power demand. High technical detail can distinguish a flexible gas turbine from an inflexible coal plant, or a generic steel plant from a specific route such as blast furnace/basic oxygen furnace versus direct reduced iron/electric arc furnace.</p><p>But detail has costs. It requires data, computation, interpretation, and discipline. More detail can make a model harder to validate, harder to explain, and easier to mistake for reality. Sometimes a simpler model is more useful because it answers the question cleanly.</p><p>The right question is not &#8220;how detailed can we make it?&#8221; The right question is &#8220;what level of detail is necessary for this decision?&#8221; For a model of annual industrial transition, five-year time steps may be reasonable. For power-system operations with variable renewables, hourly or sub-hourly time may be essential. For a national strategy, one node may be enough for a first pass. For transmission planning, one node is almost certainly misleading.</p><h2><strong>9. The economics</strong></h2><p>Most energy models we use today are often described as &#8220;least-cost&#8221; models. But this is only the doorway into the economics. Under the surface, models are dealing with a deeper question:</p><blockquote><p>How should scarce resources be allocated to produce energy services?</p></blockquote><p>That question is economic before it is mathematical. There is demand: people, firms and institutions want heat, cooling, mobility, light, industrial output and digital services. There is supply: technologies, fuels, networks, storage, labour, capital, land, water and materials. There are constraints: physics, capacity, emissions, reliability, build rates, geography, policy and money.</p><p>A simple supply-and-demand diagram is therefore not a distraction from energy-system modelling. It is one of its foundations. A supply curve says what it costs to provide more of something. A demand curve says what consumers are willing to pay, or how much they value another unit. Where supply and demand meet, a market-clearing quantity and price can emerge. In a real energy system, this happens across many fuels, sectors, locations and time periods at once.</p><p>This is why energy models can look like engineering tools but still behave like economic machines.</p><p><strong>Least cost is a special case</strong></p><p>In economics, demand can be elastic or inelastic. Elastic demand changes noticeably when price changes. Inelastic demand changes little, at least in the short run. Electricity demand, for example, is often relatively inelastic over short periods because households and firms still need heat, cooling, light, refrigeration and production. Many least-cost energy models go one step further: they treat demand as fixed or exogenous. The model must meet it, whatever the implied cost. Other models allow demand to respond through efficiency, demand response, fuel switching or reduced service demand.</p><p>Many bottom-up energy models take energy-service demand as fixed. In that case, the model does not ask whether society wants more or less of the service. It accepts the demand as an input and asks:</p><blockquote><p>What is the lowest-cost way to meet this demand while respecting all constraints?</p></blockquote><p>In plain terms:</p><p><code>Minimise total system cost<br>subject to demand being met,<br>technologies operating within limits,<br>emissions staying within limits,<br>and all other constraints being respected.</code></p><p>That is powerful, but it is not the whole economic story. If demand is allowed to respond to price, then the model can ask a wider <strong>welfare</strong> question:</p><p><code>Maximise net social welfare<br>= value of energy services to consumers<br>- cost of supplying those services<br>- external costs not already priced</code></p><p>In this language, welfare means net economic value. Consumer surplus is the value consumers receive above what they pay. Producer surplus is the value producers receive above their cost. Some equilibrium models, including TIMES-style formulations, can be interpreted through this total-surplus logic. When demand is fixed, welfare maximisation often collapses into a <strong>cost-minimisation</strong> problem because the value of demand is no longer changing inside the model.</p><p>This distinction matters. A model with fixed demand may conclude that a very expensive system is required to meet a given level of service. A model with elastic demand may instead show that some demand reduction, efficiency, demand response or behavioural change is economically valuable. The difference is not a modelling trick. It is a different representation of the demand side.</p><p><strong>Net present cost</strong></p><p>Energy investments happen over time. A gas plant, wind farm, transmission line, refinery, building retrofit or heat network may create costs and benefits for decades. The model therefore needs a way to compare money spent today with money spent or saved in the future.</p><p>That is where discounting enters.</p><p>The discount factor for year y is:</p><p><code>discount factor = 1 / (1 + r)^y</code></p><p>where r is the discount rate. A higher discount rate gives less weight to future fuel savings, future emissions reductions and future operating-cost benefits. A lower discount rate gives the future more weight.</p><p>For a system model, the net present cost can be written in plain language as:</p><p><code>Net present system cost =<br>discounted capital cost<br>+ discounted fixed O&amp;M<br>+ discounted variable O&amp;M<br>+ discounted fuel cost<br>+ discounted emissions cost<br>+ discounted policy or penalty costs<br>- discounted salvage value</code></p><p>This is why financing assumptions can change model results. A technology with high upfront cost and low operating cost, such as wind, solar, nuclear, grids or efficiency, is sensitive to the cost of capital. A technology with lower upfront cost but ongoing fuel exposure is sensitive to fuel price, carbon price and utilisation. &#8220;Cheapest&#8221; is not a property sitting inside the technology. It is a result of time, finance, fuel, utilisation, policy and system context.</p><p>Levelised cost is one useful shortcut, but it is an average-cost metric, not a full model of system value:</p><p><code>Levelised production cost =<br>discounted lifetime cost / discounted lifetime useful output</code></p><p>This can help compare similar technologies, but it can mislead when technologies provide different services. One MWh at midday is not always worth the same as one MWh on a cold, dark, windless evening. A cheap generator in a constrained location may be less valuable than a more expensive resource near demand. A plant with a higher average cost may still be valuable if it provides firm capacity, flexibility, inertia, heat, hydrogen, reserves or security of supply.</p><p>The model&#8217;s job is to place cost inside the system, not treat it as an isolated number.</p><p><strong>Marginal cost: the cost of one more unit</strong></p><p>Average cost asks: what does this technology cost per unit over its lifetime?</p><p>Marginal cost asks: what is the cost of one more unit now?</p><p>That difference is central to energy modelling. In electricity dispatch, the marginal generator is the next plant needed to meet demand. If wind and solar are available, their short-run marginal cost may be close to zero. If the system then needs a gas turbine, the marginal cost includes fuel and variable operating cost. If the system is short of capacity, the marginal value of demand response, storage, imports or firm generation can rise sharply.</p><p>For a simple dispatch model, the economic logic is:</p><p><code>Use the lowest marginal-cost resources first,<br>then use more expensive resources as demand rises,<br>until demand is met.</code></p><p>This is the merit-order idea. But modern systems complicate it. The marginal unit may depend on network congestion, ramping limits, storage state of charge, weather, reserve requirements, emissions constraints and unit-commitment decisions. The marginal cost in one location and hour may differ from another location and hour.</p><p>This is where modelling starts to reveal scarcity.</p><p><strong>Shadow prices: the value of relaxing a constraint</strong></p><p>One of the most useful outputs of an optimisation model is not only what it builds or dispatches. It is what the constraints are worth.</p><p>In a linear optimisation model, each constraint has an associated dual value, often called a shadow price. In practical language:</p><p><code>Shadow price =<br>how much the objective would improve<br>if a binding constraint were relaxed by one unit.</code></p><p>If a constraint is not binding, its shadow price is usually zero. The system has room. Relaxing the constraint does not help. If a constraint is binding, the shadow price tells you that the system is being held back by that limit.</p><p>The shadow price of an electricity balance constraint can be interpreted as the marginal cost of serving one more unit of demand at a specific node and time. In market language, this is closely related to a locational marginal price.</p><p>The shadow price of an emissions cap can be interpreted as the implicit value of one more tonne of allowed emissions. If the cap is tight, relaxing it may reduce system cost. That shadow price is not automatically a politically chosen carbon price, but it tells you what carbon constraint the model is feeling.</p><p>This is why shadow prices are so useful for policy and planning. They tell the analyst where scarcity is actually appearing in the model. The bottleneck may not be the technology everyone is arguing about. It may be the grid, winter peak, industrial heat, build rate, flexibility, finance, land, emissions or institutional constraint.</p><p>There is one important caution. Shadow prices are cleanest in linear programming. In mixed-integer models, where decisions such as unit commitment or lumpy investment are represented with integer variables, dual values need more care. The broad interpretation still matters, but the modeller must not report shadow prices mechanically without understanding the formulation.</p><p><strong>Example: A winter evening</strong></p><p>Imagine a winter evening in 2035. Demand is high. Solar output is gone. Wind output is low. Gas prices are high. A transmission line into the demand centre is congested. The emissions cap is nearly binding. Batteries are partly discharged.</p><p>A model result might say: build more storage, keep some firm capacity, reinforce the grid, and reduce peak demand through flexibility.</p><p>The cost table alone will not explain why. The economics inside the model will.</p><p>The marginal cost of serving one more MWh is high because the next available resources are expensive. The transmission shadow price is high because congestion is preventing cheaper supply from reaching demand. The emissions shadow price is high because fossil backup is constrained. The reserve constraint may show a high value for firm capacity. The model is not simply saying &#8220;storage is cheap&#8221; or &#8220;gas is expensive&#8221;. It is revealing a pattern of scarcity across time, space, emissions and reliability.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F73l!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7d10dcad-bf52-4b60-9022-0eab2debfdf6_2226x1098.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F73l!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7d10dcad-bf52-4b60-9022-0eab2debfdf6_2226x1098.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F73l!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7d10dcad-bf52-4b60-9022-0eab2debfdf6_2226x1098.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F73l!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7d10dcad-bf52-4b60-9022-0eab2debfdf6_2226x1098.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F73l!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7d10dcad-bf52-4b60-9022-0eab2debfdf6_2226x1098.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F73l!,w_2400,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7d10dcad-bf52-4b60-9022-0eab2debfdf6_2226x1098.png" width="1200" height="591.9137466307278" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7d10dcad-bf52-4b60-9022-0eab2debfdf6_2226x1098.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:false,&quot;imageSize&quot;:&quot;large&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:1098,&quot;width&quot;:2226,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:1200,&quot;bytes&quot;:370591,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/200921915?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7f4e0a32-02e1-4d76-ae48-27c19f991cc7_2400x1350.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:&quot;center&quot;,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-large" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F73l!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7d10dcad-bf52-4b60-9022-0eab2debfdf6_2226x1098.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F73l!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7d10dcad-bf52-4b60-9022-0eab2debfdf6_2226x1098.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F73l!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7d10dcad-bf52-4b60-9022-0eab2debfdf6_2226x1098.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!F73l!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7d10dcad-bf52-4b60-9022-0eab2debfdf6_2226x1098.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3><strong>10. Markets, policy, and model closure</strong></h3><p>Energy systems are shaped by policy and markets. Models have to represent that somehow.</p><p>A policy can enter a model as a target, a constraint, a price, a subsidy, a standard, or a behavioural assumption.</p><p>An emissions cap can force total emissions below a limit. A carbon tax can increase the cost of emissions-intensive fuels and technologies. A renewable target can require a minimum share or quantity of renewable generation. A subsidy can reduce the apparent cost of a technology. Efficiency standards can reduce demand or change technology availability. A price cap can affect revenues, investment, and market behaviour if the model represents them.</p><p>The same physical system can produce different results under different policy representations.</p><p>Markets are one way an energy system decides who builds, who operates, who pays, and who receives revenue. A model may represent the system as if a single planner minimises total cost, or it may represent decentralised decisions through prices, market clearing, tariffs, subsidies, contracts and regulations. These are not equivalent assumptions. A least-cost pathway may show what would be efficient for the system as a whole, but a real market asks whether investors can recover costs, whether consumers face the right prices, whether network charges are designed well, and whether policy rules make the modelled pathway financeable.</p><p>Model closure is the set of assumptions that makes the model solvable. What is exogenous? What is endogenous? Is demand fixed or price-responsive? Are fuel prices given externally or produced by a market module? Can the country import unlimited fuel at a fixed price, or is trade constrained? Are investors assumed to minimise social system cost, private cost, or something else? Are technologies available instantly, or limited by build rates and supply chains?</p><p>These choices are not technical footnotes. They shape the answer.</p><p><strong>Example: Four policy levers, four model effects</strong></p><ul><li><p>Carbon cap: emissions cannot exceed a limit.</p></li><li><p>Carbon tax: emitting technologies become more expensive.</p></li><li><p>Renewable target: renewable deployment must reach a required level.</p></li><li><p>Capital subsidy: selected technologies become cheaper to build.</p></li></ul><p>Each can reduce emissions, but each works through a different model mechanism. </p><h3><strong>11. Behaviour, barriers, and the real world outside the equation</strong></h3><p>If energy system modelling stops at techno-economic optimisation, it misses much of the real world.</p><p>Energy transitions are not implemented by a single benevolent planner with perfect information and infinite political authority. They are implemented through households, firms, investors, regulators, ministries, grid companies, local communities, supply chains, banks, and politicians. These actors have different incentives, risk perceptions, time horizons, capabilities, and constraints.</p><p>A least-cost model may assume a technology is adopted because it is cost-effective. Real households may not adopt it because the upfront cost is high, the payback is uncertain, the installation is disruptive, the landlord pays while the tenant benefits, information is poor, trust is low, or the technology is unfamiliar. Real investors may avoid a technology because of policy risk, currency risk, offtake risk, fuel risk, or uncertainty over future market rules.</p><p><strong>Behavioural modelling</strong> tries to represent some of this. It may use hurdle rates, market heterogeneity, replacement rates, demand elasticities, intangible costs, or segmented actors. These are imperfect, but they are attempts to avoid pretending that every actor behaves like the optimiser.</p><p>Social barriers also matter. Public acceptance, planning permission, land use, visual impacts, local disruption, and trust can shape technology deployment. Infrastructure lock-in matters too. An existing grid may have been built around centralised power stations, not distributed renewable generation. A city may have been built around private cars, not public transport or walkability. </p><p><strong>Example 1: The EV charging loop</strong></p><p>Few people buy electric vehicles if charging infrastructure is weak. But firms may not build charging infrastructure if few people have electric vehicles. The system can get stuck. Policy can break the loop by supporting early infrastructure, reducing risk, or coordinating investment.</p><p><strong>Example 2: Wind variability as a multi-dimensional barrier</strong></p><p>Variable wind output is a technical issue because supply changes with weather. It is an economic issue because backup, storage, grids, and flexibility cost money. It is a social issue because people value reliability and may resist infrastructure. It is a political issue because asking people to use electricity only when the wind blows is usually unacceptable. One barrier can sit across technical, economic, social, and political categories at once.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3w3g!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87b9be14-52f2-4f74-95b0-05487ff96842_2240x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3w3g!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87b9be14-52f2-4f74-95b0-05487ff96842_2240x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3w3g!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87b9be14-52f2-4f74-95b0-05487ff96842_2240x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3w3g!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87b9be14-52f2-4f74-95b0-05487ff96842_2240x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3w3g!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87b9be14-52f2-4f74-95b0-05487ff96842_2240x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3w3g!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87b9be14-52f2-4f74-95b0-05487ff96842_2240x941.png" width="2240" height="941" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/87b9be14-52f2-4f74-95b0-05487ff96842_2240x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:941,&quot;width&quot;:2240,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:336061,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/200921915?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F69105b6c-3411-4d15-aea6-e429aee92332_2400x1350.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3w3g!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87b9be14-52f2-4f74-95b0-05487ff96842_2240x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3w3g!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87b9be14-52f2-4f74-95b0-05487ff96842_2240x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3w3g!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87b9be14-52f2-4f74-95b0-05487ff96842_2240x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3w3g!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F87b9be14-52f2-4f74-95b0-05487ff96842_2240x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3><strong>12. Scenarios and Uncertainty</strong></h3><p>A scenario is an internally consistent story translated into assumptions. It may describe high demand growth, rapid technology learning, strong climate policy, weak policy, high fuel prices, low fuel prices, fast electrification, slow behavioural change, or different socio-economic futures.</p><p>Sensitivity analysis is different. It changes one or a small number of inputs to see how results respond. What happens if gas prices are 30 percent higher? What happens if battery costs fall faster? What happens if demand is lower? Sensitivity analysis is useful because it shows which assumptions matter.</p><p>Scenario analysis changes a coherent package of assumptions. For example, a &#8220;strong climate policy&#8221; scenario might combine an emissions cap, high carbon price, faster electrification, renewable support, and efficiency measures. A &#8220;high fossil fuel price&#8221; scenario might affect dispatch, investment, imports, and end-use technology choices. A &#8220;slow demand growth&#8221; scenario might reduce capacity needs and investment pressure.</p><p><strong>Stochastic modelling</strong> goes further by representing uncertain future branches with probabilities. Myopic modelling represents decisions made without full knowledge of future assumptions. Perfect-foresight modelling assumes future conditions are known across the model horizon( i.e, the model knows what to choose in advance) . Each approach represents a different view of decision-making under uncertainty.</p><p>The critical habit is to read results with the assumptions attached. A model result without its scenario assumptions is like a map without a scale.</p><p><strong>Example: Four futures, four pathways</strong></p><p>Compare four scenarios:</p><ul><li><p>High fossil fuel prices.</p></li><li><p>Low renewable and storage costs.</p></li><li><p>Slow demand growth.</p></li><li><p>Strong climate policy.</p></li></ul><p>Each can produce a different pathway. High fuel prices may favour efficiency and renewables. Low renewable costs may accelerate electrification. Slow demand growth may reduce new-build requirements. Strong climate policy may force early retirement or reduced operation of high-emission assets.</p><h3><strong>13. Integrated assessment models</strong></h3><p>IAMs place energy-system change inside a wider climate-policy framework.</p><p>They are &#8220;integrated&#8221; because they link multiple systems: energy, economy, land use, emissions, and the climate. They are used to study questions such as how the world might limit warming to 1.5C or 2C, how emissions pathways differ under policy assumptions, and what combinations of energy transformation, land-use change, negative emissions, and demand change could be consistent with climate goals.</p><p>IAMs matter because many global climate pathways including IPCC ones, including those assessed in climate-policy debates, come from them. They allow researchers to connect human development, energy use, land systems, emissions, and temperature outcomes in one framework.</p><p>But IAMs are not magic. They are simplified representations of very complex systems. They may represent some technologies, behaviours, or political constraints imperfectly. They may rely on assumptions about future demand, technology learning, carbon dioxide removal, land availability, bioenergy, electrification, and policy coordination. Different IAMs can agree on broad directions while disagreeing on details.</p><p>This does not make IAMs useless. It means they must be read as structured scenario tools, not as destiny. Their value is in clarifying what kinds of transformations are implied by climate goals and where assumptions matter most.</p><p><strong>Example: A 1.5C pathway</strong></p><p>A pathway compatible with 1.5C may involve rapid emissions reductions, electrification, energy efficiency, renewable deployment, changes in land use, reduced fossil fuel use, and some level of carbon dioxide removal. </p><p>If a pathway relies heavily on negative emissions later, the reader should ask: how much, from which technologies, with what land and energy requirements, and what happens if deployment is slower?</p><p>This interactive figure from CarbonBries explains how IAMs work for one scenario (<a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-how-integrated-assessment-models-are-used-to-study-climate-change/">source</a>)</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H4vK!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9836a2e0-f9d5-4f4a-906c-4a5d7b1ecb7d_849x567.gif" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H4vK!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9836a2e0-f9d5-4f4a-906c-4a5d7b1ecb7d_849x567.gif 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H4vK!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9836a2e0-f9d5-4f4a-906c-4a5d7b1ecb7d_849x567.gif 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H4vK!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9836a2e0-f9d5-4f4a-906c-4a5d7b1ecb7d_849x567.gif 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H4vK!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9836a2e0-f9d5-4f4a-906c-4a5d7b1ecb7d_849x567.gif 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!H4vK!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_lossy/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9836a2e0-f9d5-4f4a-906c-4a5d7b1ecb7d_849x567.gif" width="849" height="567" 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stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3><strong>14. How models are built in practice</strong></h3><p>The modelling workflow is less glamorous than the final charts suggest.</p><p>It usually looks like this:</p><ol><li><p>Define the question.</p></li><li><p>Define the system boundary.</p></li><li><p>Decide the model type and level of detail.</p></li><li><p>Gather raw data.</p></li><li><p>Process data into consistent formats.</p></li><li><p>Build the reference system or base-year balance.</p></li><li><p>Formulate equations, variables, constraints, and objective.</p></li><li><p>Implement the model in software.</p></li><li><p>Solve the base case.</p></li><li><p>Test and validate behaviour.</p></li><li><p>Build policy or uncertainty scenarios.</p></li><li><p>Post-process results.</p></li><li><p>Interpret results for the decision.</p></li><li><p>Revise assumptions and repeat.</p></li></ol><p>The iteration is important. A model is rarely built perfectly from the start. A good modeller starts simple, checks whether the model behaves sensibly, then adds complexity only when it is needed.</p><p>This is also where transparency matters. The model should document data sources, assumptions, equations, scenario definitions, and limitations. If other people need to use or trust the model, the workflow cannot live only in the modeller&#8217;s head.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wDu9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd735caa4-6601-4e14-9e81-16ba6c8c8543_1922x818.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wDu9!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd735caa4-6601-4e14-9e81-16ba6c8c8543_1922x818.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wDu9!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd735caa4-6601-4e14-9e81-16ba6c8c8543_1922x818.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wDu9!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd735caa4-6601-4e14-9e81-16ba6c8c8543_1922x818.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wDu9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd735caa4-6601-4e14-9e81-16ba6c8c8543_1922x818.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wDu9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd735caa4-6601-4e14-9e81-16ba6c8c8543_1922x818.png" width="1922" height="818" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d735caa4-6601-4e14-9e81-16ba6c8c8543_1922x818.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:818,&quot;width&quot;:1922,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:129948,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/200921915?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F9d3ab838-c148-4567-b20a-3bf927f3ac44_2200x1250.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wDu9!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd735caa4-6601-4e14-9e81-16ba6c8c8543_1922x818.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wDu9!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd735caa4-6601-4e14-9e81-16ba6c8c8543_1922x818.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wDu9!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd735caa4-6601-4e14-9e81-16ba6c8c8543_1922x818.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!wDu9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd735caa4-6601-4e14-9e81-16ba6c8c8543_1922x818.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p><strong>Example: A simple national electricity-planning model</strong></p><p>Start with electricity demand. Add existing power plants and their capacities. Add candidate technologies: solar, wind, gas, batteries, grid upgrades, imports, and efficiency. Assign costs, lifetimes, efficiencies, emissions, availability, and build limits. Add constraints: demand must be met, emissions must stay below a cap, reserve margin must be adequate, and resource limits must be respected. Solve a base case. Compare it with historical data. Then create scenarios: high gas price, faster solar cost decline, tighter emissions cap, slower demand growth, limited grid expansion.</p><p><strong>Example B: a city heat transition model to 2050</strong></p><p>To make the workflow concrete, imagine a city wants to decarbonise building heat by 2050. This is simpler than a full national energy system, but still rich enough to show how a model is set up and how results are interpreted.</p><p>The research question:</p><blockquote><p>What combination of gas boilers, heat pumps, district heating, building efficiency, thermal storage, and low-carbon electricity can meet city heat demand to 2050 at least cost while reducing emissions?</p></blockquote><p>The model sets:</p><ul><li><p>Years: 2025, 2030, 2035, 2040, 2045, 2050.</p></li><li><p>Demand sectors: homes, commercial buildings, public buildings.</p></li><li><p>Commodities: gas, electricity, useful heat, stored heat, emissions.</p></li><li><p>Technologies: gas boiler, electric heat pump, district heat connection, insulation/efficiency retrofit, thermal storage.</p></li><li><p>Nodes: either one city node for a simple model, or several districts if geography matters.</p></li></ul><p>The decision variables:</p><ul><li><p>New capacity of each heating technology.</p></li><li><p>Heat produced by each technology in each year or time slice.</p></li><li><p>Electricity consumed by heat pumps.</p></li><li><p>Gas consumed by boilers.</p></li><li><p>Heat stored and discharged, if storage is represented.</p></li><li><p>Efficiency retrofit deployment.</p></li></ul><p>The constraints:</p><ul><li><p>Useful heat demand must be met in every period.</p></li><li><p>Existing heating systems retire according to lifetime assumptions.</p></li><li><p>Heat-pump deployment cannot exceed an annual installation limit.</p></li><li><p>District heating can only expand at a specified build rate.</p></li><li><p>Emissions must follow a declining cap or reach near-zero by 2050.</p></li><li><p>Peak heat demand must be covered, not only annual heat demand.</p></li><li><p>Electricity demand from heat pumps must be counted, because electrifying heat shifts pressure to the power system.</p></li></ul><p>The objective:</p><blockquote><p>Minimise discounted system cost, including technology investment, fuel, electricity, fixed and variable operation and maintenance, carbon cost, and efficiency measures.</p></blockquote><p>The useful result graphs would not be one chart. They would be a small results story:</p><ul><li><p>Heat supply by technology to 2050: shows the transition from gas boilers toward heat pumps, district heat, efficiency, or other options.</p></li><li><p>Installed capacity by technology: shows what must be built, not just what produces energy.</p></li><li><p>Final energy demand: shows gas falling and electricity rising.</p></li><li><p>Emissions pathway: shows whether the system meets the climate constraint.</p></li><li><p>Annual investment or system cost: shows when spending occurs.</p></li><li><p>Sensitivity comparison: shows how the pathway changes if electricity prices, gas prices, heat-pump costs, or retrofit rates differ.</p></li></ul><h3><strong>15. How to judge whether a model is useful</strong></h3><p>A good model is not the most complicated model.</p><p>A useful model is fit for its question.</p><p>A model may be useful if it quantifies a hypothesis, reveals a concept, compares options, contextualises a technology or policy inside a real system, reduces uncertainty, or supports application in a real-world case. This is a better standard than asking whether a model is &#8220;right&#8221; in some absolute sense.</p><p>When reading or building an energy model, ask:</p><ul><li><p>What question was the model built to answer?</p></li><li><p>What is inside the system boundary?</p></li><li><p>What is outside it?</p></li><li><p>What is exogenous, and what is endogenous?</p></li><li><p>What objective is being optimised, if any?</p></li><li><p>What constraints bind?</p></li><li><p>What assumptions drive the result?</p></li><li><p>What data were used?</p></li><li><p>Was the base year calibrated?</p></li><li><p>Was behaviour tested against known examples?</p></li><li><p>Were uncertainties explored?</p></li><li><p>Are results robust across scenarios?</p></li><li><p>Are the outputs understandable to decision-makers?</p></li><li><p>Are the limitations stated clearly?</p></li><li><p>Is the model timely for the decision it claims to inform?</p></li></ul><p>The worst use of modelling is to hide judgement behind mathematics. The best use of modelling is to make judgement explicit.</p><p>Energy systems are too important for black boxes. They shape economies, households, public budgets, industrial competitiveness, air quality, climate outcomes, and national security. Modelling should therefore be transparent and useful.</p><p>The modeller&#8217;s task is not to produce a beautiful chart of a single future. It is to help society reason more clearly about choices that are too large, too slow, too expensive, and too consequential to test casually in the real world.</p><p>That is why energy system modelling matters.</p><h3><strong>Closing thought</strong></h3><p>Energy system modelling is sometimes treated as a technical speciality hidden behind software and acronyms. It should not be.</p><p>At its best, <strong>it is a public reasoning discipline</strong>. It helps us ask better questions about infrastructure, climate, affordability, security, and social change. It forces us to connect physics with economics, technology with behaviour, and ambition with constraints.</p><p>The model is a structured conversation with the future. And the quality of that conversation depends on the quality of the question, the honesty of the assumptions, the fitness of the method, the clarity of the communication, and the humility of the modeller.</p><p>Ahmed Gailani</p><p>References and sources helped me with this article:</p><p><strong>Core sources:</strong></p><ul><li><p>Energy Modelling Platform for Europe / EMP-E, <em>Energy System Models: Basic Principles and Concepts</em>.</p></li><li><p>Holger Rogner, <em>Energy System Modelling</em>, ICTP, June 2017. </p></li><li><p>Peter Taylor, <em>Introduction to Energy Modelling</em>. </p></li><li><p>Hawker, G. and Bell, K., <em>Making Energy System Models Useful</em>. </p></li><li><p>Neil Strachan, <em>Energy Systems Modeling / Behavioural Complexity</em>. </p></li></ul><p><strong>Web references</strong></p><ul><li><p>TransitionZero Tech Team, <em><a href="https://transitionzero.medium.com/systems-modelling-from-scratch-part-1-d753f1375149">Systems Modelling from Scratch (Part 1)</a></em>, Medium, 14 Nov 2023.</p></li><li><p>TransitionZero Tech Team, <em><a href="https://transitionzero.medium.com/systems-modelling-from-scratch-part-2-a7a0a3b77682">Systems Modelling from Scratch (Part 2)</a></em>, Medium, 14 Nov 2023.</p></li><li><p>Carbon Brief, <em>Q&amp;A: How &#8220;i<a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/qa-how-integrated-assessment-models-are-used-to-study-climate-change/">ntegrated assessment models</a>&#8221; are used to study climate change</em>.</p></li><li><p>Carbon Brief, <em>Guest post: <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-how-cmip7-will-shape-the-next-wave-of-climate-science/">How CMIP7 will shape the next wave of climate science</a></em>.</p></li><li><p>Prina, M. G., Manzolini, G., Moser, D., Nastasi, B. and Sparber, W. 2020. <em><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1364032120302082">Classification and challenges of bottom-up energy system models - A review</a></em>. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 129, 109917.</p></li></ul><p><strong>Additional modelling/economics references used for Section 9</strong></p><ul><li><p>PyPSA documentation, objective function / system cost formulation.</p></li><li><p>OSeMOSYS documentation, cost and emissions formulation.</p></li><li><p>TIMES model documentation, economic rationale and partial-equilibrium formulation.</p></li></ul>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[كم بلغ حجم التمويل المخصص للمناخ في العراق؟]]></title><description><![CDATA[&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1589;&#1577;]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/9df</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/9df</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 31 May 2026 17:36:09 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/37b089e5-3280-40cf-8dd3-13a6140354ea_1200x630.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<h2><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1589;&#1577;</strong></h2><p>&#1576;&#1610;&#1606; 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&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; 54.1% &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601;&#1548; &#1608;33.0% &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601;&#1548; &#1608;12.9% &#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1571;&#1608; &#1605;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1591;&#1593;&#1577;. &#1571;&#1605;&#1575; &#1571;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1585;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1592;&#1607;&#1585;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1578;&#1588;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586;&#1548; &#1571;&#1606;&#1592;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577;&#1548; &#1606;&#1602;&#1604; &#1608;&#1578;&#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1605;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1578;&#1589;&#1606;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1581;&#1601;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610;&#1548; &#1578;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1580;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1608;&#1605;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577;.</p><h2><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605;&#1577;</strong></h2><p>&#1583;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605;&#1575; &#1605;&#1575; &#1606;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1606;&#1606;&#1575; &#1606;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1575;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585;. &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581;&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606;&#1607; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1587;&#1608;&#1609; &#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1589;&#1577;.</p><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1572;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1589;&#1593;&#1576; &#1607;&#1608;: &#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1576;&#1607; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567; &#1608;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1605; &#1576;&#1607;&#1567; &#1608;&#1604;&#1571;&#1610; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;&#1567; &#1608;&#1576;&#1571;&#1610; &#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591;&#1567; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606;&#1592;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1604;&#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1585;&#1577; 2016-2023&#1548; &#1578;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1578;&#1593;&#1602;&#1610;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611;: &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1587;&#1580;&#1604;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1587;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1580;&#1586;&#1569;&#1575;&#1611; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1583;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1605;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606;&#1581; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1588;&#1585;&#1577;.</p><p>&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604; &#1610;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605;&#1607;&#1548; &#1608;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1606;&#1592;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1608; &#1575;&#1591;&#1575;&#1585; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1571;&#1608;&#1590;&#1581; &#1604;&#1578;&#1578;&#1576;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1585;&#1581;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1585;&#1581;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1585;&#1601; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1579;&#1585;.</p><p>&#1575;&#1582;&#1578;&#1585;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1585;&#1577; 2016-2023 &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1570;&#1582;&#1585; &#1601;&#1578;&#1585;&#1577; &#1578;&#1578;&#1608;&#1601;&#1585; &#1593;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605;.</p><h2><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; 2016-2023</strong></h2><p>&#1576;&#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; OECD  &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606;&#1592;&#1608;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1610;&#1583;&#1548; &#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1576;&#1600; <strong>4.32 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;</strong> &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606; 2016 &#1608;2023.</p><p>&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604; &#1610;&#1581;&#1604;&#1604; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;</strong> &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1601;&#1608;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;</strong>. &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1615;&#1602;&#1585; &#1571;&#1608; &#1582;&#1615;&#1589;&#1589; &#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593;. &#1571;&#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1601;&#1608;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1615;&#1589;&#1585;&#1601; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1608;&#1594;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578;. &#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1606;&#1576;&#1594;&#1610; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1606;&#1607; &#1603;&#1604; &#1605;&#1575; &#1608;&#1589;&#1604; &#1571;&#1608; &#1589;&#1615;&#1585;&#1601; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;. &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1571;&#1606;&#1607; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1590;&#1585;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1581;&#1589;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1575;&#1578; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1600;100 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;&#1548; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;. &#1604;&#1603;&#1606;&#1607; &#1610;&#1576;&#1602;&#1609; &#1582;&#1585;&#1610;&#1591;&#1577; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1576;&#1607; &#1576;&#1575;&#1587;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;.</p><p>&#1610;&#1602;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1582;&#1604;&#1601; &#1605;&#1589;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576; &#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1583;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1573;&#1580;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; 2016-2023. &#1587;&#1580;&#1604;&#1578; &#1605;&#1589;&#1585; <strong>16.89 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;</strong>&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576; <strong>12.62 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;</strong>&#1548; &#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575; <strong>9.57 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;</strong>&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1583;&#1606; <strong>6.17 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;</strong>&#1548; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604; <strong>4.32 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;</strong> &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;. &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1583;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1587;&#1572;&#1575;&#1604; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1588;&#1585;: &#1607;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1606;&#1567; &#1571;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; &#1573;&#1593;&#1583;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;&#1567; &#1571;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578;&#1567; &#1571;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584;&#1567; &#1571;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; &#1590;&#1593;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1587;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1567; &#1571;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; &#1594;&#1610;&#1575;&#1576; &#1581;&#1586;&#1605;&#1577; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591;&#1577; &#1576;&#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567;</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zp2E!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bea89e5-ef4d-4a81-a6d6-4d2b718c1568_2496x1410.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zp2E!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bea89e5-ef4d-4a81-a6d6-4d2b718c1568_2496x1410.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zp2E!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bea89e5-ef4d-4a81-a6d6-4d2b718c1568_2496x1410.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zp2E!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bea89e5-ef4d-4a81-a6d6-4d2b718c1568_2496x1410.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zp2E!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bea89e5-ef4d-4a81-a6d6-4d2b718c1568_2496x1410.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zp2E!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bea89e5-ef4d-4a81-a6d6-4d2b718c1568_2496x1410.png" width="1456" height="823" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/7bea89e5-ef4d-4a81-a6d6-4d2b718c1568_2496x1410.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:823,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&#1573;&#1580;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="&#1573;&#1580;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;" title="&#1573;&#1580;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zp2E!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bea89e5-ef4d-4a81-a6d6-4d2b718c1568_2496x1410.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zp2E!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bea89e5-ef4d-4a81-a6d6-4d2b718c1568_2496x1410.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zp2E!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bea89e5-ef4d-4a81-a6d6-4d2b718c1568_2496x1410.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Zp2E!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7bea89e5-ef4d-4a81-a6d6-4d2b718c1568_2496x1410.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1605;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611;. &#1588;&#1607;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1602;&#1601;&#1586;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1593;&#1575;&#1605; 2022&#1548; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1608;&#1589;&#1604;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; <strong>1.11 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;</strong>. &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1601;&#1586;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1606;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1585;&#1577; &#1603;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575;. &#1610;&#1608;&#1590;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607; &#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;&#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590;&#1577;&#1548; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1587;&#1580;&#1604;&#1578; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577; &#1576;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1605;&#1578;&#1603;&#1585;&#1585;.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_dbB!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95bbac24-910a-4fbc-ac51-0b2867737bf4_2673x1458.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_dbB!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95bbac24-910a-4fbc-ac51-0b2867737bf4_2673x1458.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_dbB!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95bbac24-910a-4fbc-ac51-0b2867737bf4_2673x1458.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_dbB!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95bbac24-910a-4fbc-ac51-0b2867737bf4_2673x1458.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_dbB!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95bbac24-910a-4fbc-ac51-0b2867737bf4_2673x1458.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_dbB!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95bbac24-910a-4fbc-ac51-0b2867737bf4_2673x1458.png" width="1456" height="794" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/95bbac24-910a-4fbc-ac51-0b2867737bf4_2673x1458.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:794,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1577; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1577; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;" title="&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1577; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_dbB!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95bbac24-910a-4fbc-ac51-0b2867737bf4_2673x1458.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_dbB!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95bbac24-910a-4fbc-ac51-0b2867737bf4_2673x1458.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_dbB!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95bbac24-910a-4fbc-ac51-0b2867737bf4_2673x1458.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!_dbB!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F95bbac24-910a-4fbc-ac51-0b2867737bf4_2673x1458.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h2><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1583; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606;&#1607; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1608;&#1581;&#1583;&#1607;</strong></h2><p>&#1578;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1571;&#1583;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606; <strong>78.8%</strong> &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1581; <strong>21.2%</strong>.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rfO5!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc5c719f6-e41a-448d-83f3-3b61e892b616_2506x1482.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rfO5!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc5c719f6-e41a-448d-83f3-3b61e892b616_2506x1482.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rfO5!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc5c719f6-e41a-448d-83f3-3b61e892b616_2506x1482.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rfO5!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc5c719f6-e41a-448d-83f3-3b61e892b616_2506x1482.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rfO5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc5c719f6-e41a-448d-83f3-3b61e892b616_2506x1482.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rfO5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc5c719f6-e41a-448d-83f3-3b61e892b616_2506x1482.png" width="1456" height="861" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/c5c719f6-e41a-448d-83f3-3b61e892b616_2506x1482.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:861,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1581; &#1608;&#1571;&#1583;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1571;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1581; &#1608;&#1571;&#1583;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1571;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;" title="&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1581; &#1608;&#1571;&#1583;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1571;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rfO5!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc5c719f6-e41a-448d-83f3-3b61e892b616_2506x1482.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rfO5!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc5c719f6-e41a-448d-83f3-3b61e892b616_2506x1482.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rfO5!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc5c719f6-e41a-448d-83f3-3b61e892b616_2506x1482.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rfO5!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fc5c719f6-e41a-448d-83f3-3b61e892b616_2506x1482.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1593;&#1592;&#1605;&#1607; &#1571;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1580;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577;. &#1573;&#1606;&#1607; &#1610;&#1578;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1576;&#1602;&#1608;&#1577; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1602;&#1585;&#1608;&#1590; &#1608;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577;. &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1583;&#1593;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1605;&#1608;&#1583;&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606;&#1607; &#1602;&#1583; &#1610;&#1586;&#1610;&#1583; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1585;&#1590; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606; &#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1605;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1608;&#1590;.</p><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606;&#1601;&#1585;&#1583;&#1577;. &#1605;&#1589;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576; &#1608;&#1603;&#1575;&#1586;&#1575;&#1582;&#1587;&#1578;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1583;&#1606; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611; &#1578;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1583; 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&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1581; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1581; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577;" title="&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1581; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577;" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7HqX!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F410c7ed3-59a8-499c-96b7-10dfaa8c50f3_2387x1434.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7HqX!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F410c7ed3-59a8-499c-96b7-10dfaa8c50f3_2387x1434.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7HqX!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F410c7ed3-59a8-499c-96b7-10dfaa8c50f3_2387x1434.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!7HqX!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F410c7ed3-59a8-499c-96b7-10dfaa8c50f3_2387x1434.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h2><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1590;&#1608;&#1593;</strong></h2><p>&#1578;&#1608;&#1586;&#1593;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; <strong>54.1% &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601;</strong>&#1548; &#1608;<strong>33.0% &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601;</strong>&#1548; &#1608;<strong>12.9% &#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1571;&#1608; &#1605;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1591;&#1593;&#1577;</strong>. &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1608;&#1590;&#1581; &#1571;&#1606; &#1602;&#1589;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578; &#1602;&#1589;&#1577; &#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591;&#1548; &#1585;&#1594;&#1605; &#1571;&#1606; &#1607;&#1588;&#1575;&#1588;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1615;&#1606;&#1575;&#1602;&#1588; &#1594;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1586;&#1575;&#1608;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1607; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;&#1587;&#1576;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1610;&#1588;.</p><p>&#1605;&#1589;&#1585; &#1608;&#1603;&#1575;&#1586;&#1575;&#1582;&#1587;&#1578;&#1575;&#1606; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1606;&#1581;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1578;&#1608;&#1575;&#1586;&#1606;&#1575;&#1611;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1583;&#1606; &#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575; &#1581;&#1589;&#1589; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1591;&#1593;&#1577;.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8X3f!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5354b642-7f7f-498c-9c46-3fa1f1524f0f_2506x1482.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8X3f!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5354b642-7f7f-498c-9c46-3fa1f1524f0f_2506x1482.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8X3f!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5354b642-7f7f-498c-9c46-3fa1f1524f0f_2506x1482.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8X3f!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5354b642-7f7f-498c-9c46-3fa1f1524f0f_2506x1482.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8X3f!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5354b642-7f7f-498c-9c46-3fa1f1524f0f_2506x1482.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!8X3f!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5354b642-7f7f-498c-9c46-3fa1f1524f0f_2506x1482.png" width="1456" height="861" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5354b642-7f7f-498c-9c46-3fa1f1524f0f_2506x1482.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:861,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; 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&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1605; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567; &#1608;&#1604;&#1571;&#1610; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;&#1567;</strong></h2><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1576;&#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; &#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1605;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604; &#1592;&#1575;&#1607;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1587;&#1580;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1576;&#1602;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577; <strong>2.36 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;</strong>. &#1608;&#1610;&#1571;&#1578;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1576;&#1593;&#1583;&#1607;&#1575; &#1576;&#1602;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577; <strong>882.2 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;</strong>. &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1615;&#1587;&#1580;&#1604; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1581;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1585;&#1608;&#1576;&#1610; &#1576;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606;&#1601;&#1589;&#1604; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1585;&#1608;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1575;&#1604;&#1579; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1583;&#1606;&#1575;&#1607;.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dJEM!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcafdf11d-42d4-4897-8035-f0c92ed5af72_2578x2819.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dJEM!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcafdf11d-42d4-4897-8035-f0c92ed5af72_2578x2819.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dJEM!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcafdf11d-42d4-4897-8035-f0c92ed5af72_2578x2819.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dJEM!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcafdf11d-42d4-4897-8035-f0c92ed5af72_2578x2819.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dJEM!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcafdf11d-42d4-4897-8035-f0c92ed5af72_2578x2819.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dJEM!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcafdf11d-42d4-4897-8035-f0c92ed5af72_2578x2819.png" width="1456" height="1592" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/cafdf11d-42d4-4897-8035-f0c92ed5af72_2578x2819.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1592,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&#1580;&#1605;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1606; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="&#1580;&#1605;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1606; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;" title="&#1580;&#1605;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1606; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dJEM!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcafdf11d-42d4-4897-8035-f0c92ed5af72_2578x2819.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dJEM!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcafdf11d-42d4-4897-8035-f0c92ed5af72_2578x2819.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dJEM!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcafdf11d-42d4-4897-8035-f0c92ed5af72_2578x2819.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dJEM!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fcafdf11d-42d4-4897-8035-f0c92ed5af72_2578x2819.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>&#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; 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&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1603;&#1575;&#1601;. &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1591;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607;&#1575;.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Np_S!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18051aa9-9798-4219-a50a-137530141978_2554x2051.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Np_S!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18051aa9-9798-4219-a50a-137530141978_2554x2051.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Np_S!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18051aa9-9798-4219-a50a-137530141978_2554x2051.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Np_S!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18051aa9-9798-4219-a50a-137530141978_2554x2051.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Np_S!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18051aa9-9798-4219-a50a-137530141978_2554x2051.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Np_S!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18051aa9-9798-4219-a50a-137530141978_2554x2051.png" width="1456" height="1169" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/18051aa9-9798-4219-a50a-137530141978_2554x2051.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1169,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="&#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;" title="&#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Np_S!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18051aa9-9798-4219-a50a-137530141978_2554x2051.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Np_S!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18051aa9-9798-4219-a50a-137530141978_2554x2051.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Np_S!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18051aa9-9798-4219-a50a-137530141978_2554x2051.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Np_S!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18051aa9-9798-4219-a50a-137530141978_2554x2051.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h2><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; 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&#1608;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; - &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1608;&#1589;&#1606;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; </p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[How much climate finance was committed to Iraq?]]></title><description><![CDATA[Summary]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/how-much-climate-finance-was-committed</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/how-much-climate-finance-was-committed</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 31 May 2026 10:31:39 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/dfee4603-72b0-43a8-881a-29e27dc1ff6b_1200x630.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<h3>Summary</h3><p>Between 2016 and 2023, USD <strong>4.32bn</strong> in climate-related development finance was committed to Iraq, according to OECD Recipient Perspective data. The data shows that Iraq&#8217;s climate finance is heavily shaped by debt, large infrastructure projects, and a small number of major providers, especially Japan and the World Bank. Iraq also received less committed climate-related finance than Egypt, Morocco, Nigeria and Jordan over the same period.  </p><p>Iraq&#8217;s commitments were 54.1% mitigation, 33.0% adaptation, and 12.9% cross-cutting. The main funded sub-sectors included <strong>oil and gas</strong>, large water systems, electricity transmission, social protection, fossil-fuel energy manufacturing, non-renewable energy generation, agricultural water resources and hydropower.</p><h3>Introduction</h3><p>Iraq often says it needs more climate finance. That is true, but it is only the beginning of the story.</p><p>The harder question is what climate finance has actually been committed to Iraq, by whom, for which projects, and under what terms. When we look at the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) climate-related development finance data for 2016-2023, the picture becomes more complicated: Iraq has billions recorded in climate-related commitments, but much of it is debt, large project finance, and infrastructure-linked funding rather than simple grant support.</p><p>This article looks at what the data shows, what it does not show, and why Iraq needs a much clearer national system to track climate finance from commitment to actual delivery.</p><p>I chose to show the data from 2016-2023 (last year where data is available). </p><h3><strong>Climate-related finance to Iraq 2016-2023</strong></h3><p>According to OECD climate related development finance (CRDF) Recipient Perspective data, <strong>USD 4.32bn</strong> was committed to Iraq between 2016 and 2023.</p><p>This article analyses commitments, not disbursements. Commitments are finance approved or allocated to projects. Disbursements are the actual release of funds, often over several years. It is not Iraq's exact share of the OECD USD 100 billion climate finance accounting, and it is not the full NCQG finance picture. But it is still a useful map of what was committed in Iraq's name.</p><p>Iraq sits below Egypt, Morocco, Nigeria and Jordan in total CRDF commitments over 2016-2023. Egypt records USD 16.89bn, Morocco USD 12.62bn, Nigeria USD 9.57bn, and Jordan USD 6.17bn.  This comparison should push Iraq to ask whether the issue is provider appetite, project preparation, sector priorities, implementation risk, national coordination, or the absence of a strong bankable pipeline tied to its climate priorities.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MvV3!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00069155-d32a-42f5-87cc-abef3bf5ff01_2255x1305.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MvV3!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00069155-d32a-42f5-87cc-abef3bf5ff01_2255x1305.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MvV3!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00069155-d32a-42f5-87cc-abef3bf5ff01_2255x1305.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MvV3!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00069155-d32a-42f5-87cc-abef3bf5ff01_2255x1305.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MvV3!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00069155-d32a-42f5-87cc-abef3bf5ff01_2255x1305.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MvV3!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00069155-d32a-42f5-87cc-abef3bf5ff01_2255x1305.png" width="1456" height="843" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/00069155-d32a-42f5-87cc-abef3bf5ff01_2255x1305.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:843,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:126595,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/199959997?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00069155-d32a-42f5-87cc-abef3bf5ff01_2255x1305.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MvV3!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00069155-d32a-42f5-87cc-abef3bf5ff01_2255x1305.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MvV3!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00069155-d32a-42f5-87cc-abef3bf5ff01_2255x1305.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MvV3!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00069155-d32a-42f5-87cc-abef3bf5ff01_2255x1305.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MvV3!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F00069155-d32a-42f5-87cc-abef3bf5ff01_2255x1305.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>The annual pattern also matters. Iraq had a visible spike in 2022, when commitments reached USD 1.11bn. But in the wider comparison, Iraq's spike does not make it an exceptional recipient across the period. The heatmap shows that Iraq has high years and low years, while some comparator countries record repeated large years. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s0Hy!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2f3e146d-cf43-4493-9007-d18c52b7cfe3_2572x1303.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s0Hy!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2f3e146d-cf43-4493-9007-d18c52b7cfe3_2572x1303.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s0Hy!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2f3e146d-cf43-4493-9007-d18c52b7cfe3_2572x1303.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s0Hy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2f3e146d-cf43-4493-9007-d18c52b7cfe3_2572x1303.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s0Hy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2f3e146d-cf43-4493-9007-d18c52b7cfe3_2572x1303.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s0Hy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2f3e146d-cf43-4493-9007-d18c52b7cfe3_2572x1303.png" width="2572" height="1303" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/2f3e146d-cf43-4493-9007-d18c52b7cfe3_2572x1303.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1303,&quot;width&quot;:2572,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:221846,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Annual commitments by selected country&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Annual commitments by selected country" title="Annual commitments by selected country" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s0Hy!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2f3e146d-cf43-4493-9007-d18c52b7cfe3_2572x1303.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s0Hy!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2f3e146d-cf43-4493-9007-d18c52b7cfe3_2572x1303.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s0Hy!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2f3e146d-cf43-4493-9007-d18c52b7cfe3_2572x1303.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!s0Hy!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2f3e146d-cf43-4493-9007-d18c52b7cfe3_2572x1303.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3><strong>Iraq is debt-heavy, but it is not alone</strong></h3><p>Debt instruments account for 78.8% of Iraq&#8217;s commitments, while grants account for 21.2%.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WuHE!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0005b6d-d008-4de8-8946-781130255c9b_2386x1455.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WuHE!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0005b6d-d008-4de8-8946-781130255c9b_2386x1455.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WuHE!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0005b6d-d008-4de8-8946-781130255c9b_2386x1455.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WuHE!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0005b6d-d008-4de8-8946-781130255c9b_2386x1455.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WuHE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0005b6d-d008-4de8-8946-781130255c9b_2386x1455.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WuHE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0005b6d-d008-4de8-8946-781130255c9b_2386x1455.png" width="2386" height="1455" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d0005b6d-d008-4de8-8946-781130255c9b_2386x1455.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1455,&quot;width&quot;:2386,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:141659,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Debt, grant and equity shares by country&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Debt, grant and equity shares by country" title="Debt, grant and equity shares by country" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WuHE!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0005b6d-d008-4de8-8946-781130255c9b_2386x1455.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WuHE!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0005b6d-d008-4de8-8946-781130255c9b_2386x1455.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WuHE!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0005b6d-d008-4de8-8946-781130255c9b_2386x1455.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WuHE!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd0005b6d-d008-4de8-8946-781130255c9b_2386x1455.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>That means Iraq&#8217;s climate-related development finance is not mainly free money. It is heavily shaped by large loan records. This matters because climate finance can support infrastructure and resilience, but it can also add to debt exposure if it is mostly loan-based.</p><p>The comparison shows Iraq is not unique. Egypt, Morocco, Kazakhstan, Nigeria and Jordan are also debt-heavy in this dataset. </p><p>Debt is not automatically bad. Large water, energy and transport systems often require capital that grants alone will not cover. But the terms matter politically and fiscally. If climate finance is presented domestically as support for a country facing severe climate risk, then a portfolio dominated by loans tells a more complicated story. Iraq is not only attracting climate-related support. It is also taking on, or being associated with, debt-financed project commitments. This should change the public conversation. </p><p>Iraq should separate grant finance, concessional loans, non-concessional loans, guarantees and technical assistance in its own reporting. A single headline total hides the difference between support that expands fiscal space and finance that must be repaid.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fe85!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa57ffb63-e99d-4a2c-aaf2-b5d69636747e_2327x1323.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fe85!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa57ffb63-e99d-4a2c-aaf2-b5d69636747e_2327x1323.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fe85!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa57ffb63-e99d-4a2c-aaf2-b5d69636747e_2327x1323.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fe85!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa57ffb63-e99d-4a2c-aaf2-b5d69636747e_2327x1323.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fe85!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa57ffb63-e99d-4a2c-aaf2-b5d69636747e_2327x1323.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fe85!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa57ffb63-e99d-4a2c-aaf2-b5d69636747e_2327x1323.png" width="2327" height="1323" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a57ffb63-e99d-4a2c-aaf2-b5d69636747e_2327x1323.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1323,&quot;width&quot;:2327,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:115228,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Iraq debt and grant commitments by year&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Iraq debt and grant commitments by year" title="Iraq debt and grant commitments by year" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fe85!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa57ffb63-e99d-4a2c-aaf2-b5d69636747e_2327x1323.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fe85!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa57ffb63-e99d-4a2c-aaf2-b5d69636747e_2327x1323.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fe85!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa57ffb63-e99d-4a2c-aaf2-b5d69636747e_2327x1323.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fe85!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa57ffb63-e99d-4a2c-aaf2-b5d69636747e_2327x1323.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3>Climate finance across different themes</h3><p>Iraq&#8217;s commitments are 54.1% mitigation, 33.0% adaptation, and 12.9% cross-cutting. The comparison is useful because it shows Iraq is not simply an adaptation story, even though Iraq&#8217;s climate vulnerability is often discussed through water, heat, agriculture and livelihoods.</p><p>Egypt and Kazakhstan are much more mitigation-heavy. Morocco has a more balanced spread. Jordan and Nigeria have large cross-cutting shares. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pDXW!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c0c5cce-e131-4dda-b6d1-9cc7f37598b6_2375x1449.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pDXW!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c0c5cce-e131-4dda-b6d1-9cc7f37598b6_2375x1449.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pDXW!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c0c5cce-e131-4dda-b6d1-9cc7f37598b6_2375x1449.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pDXW!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c0c5cce-e131-4dda-b6d1-9cc7f37598b6_2375x1449.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pDXW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c0c5cce-e131-4dda-b6d1-9cc7f37598b6_2375x1449.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pDXW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c0c5cce-e131-4dda-b6d1-9cc7f37598b6_2375x1449.png" width="2375" height="1449" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1c0c5cce-e131-4dda-b6d1-9cc7f37598b6_2375x1449.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1449,&quot;width&quot;:2375,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:149812,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Theme composition by country&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Theme composition by country" title="Theme composition by country" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pDXW!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c0c5cce-e131-4dda-b6d1-9cc7f37598b6_2375x1449.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pDXW!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c0c5cce-e131-4dda-b6d1-9cc7f37598b6_2375x1449.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pDXW!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c0c5cce-e131-4dda-b6d1-9cc7f37598b6_2375x1449.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!pDXW!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1c0c5cce-e131-4dda-b6d1-9cc7f37598b6_2375x1449.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3><strong>Who committed finance to Iraq and to which projects? </strong></h3><p>Japan is the largest exact provider in the Iraq records, with USD 2.36bn. The World Bank, recorded as WB / International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, follows with USD 882.2m. EU Institutions are recorded separately from individual countries.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhHz!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1294af-fc60-4d00-b022-8367ccd85f5f_2386x2711.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhHz!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1294af-fc60-4d00-b022-8367ccd85f5f_2386x2711.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhHz!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1294af-fc60-4d00-b022-8367ccd85f5f_2386x2711.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhHz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1294af-fc60-4d00-b022-8367ccd85f5f_2386x2711.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhHz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1294af-fc60-4d00-b022-8367ccd85f5f_2386x2711.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhHz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1294af-fc60-4d00-b022-8367ccd85f5f_2386x2711.png" width="1456" height="1654" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/3a1294af-fc60-4d00-b022-8367ccd85f5f_2386x2711.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1654,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:308845,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/199959997?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1294af-fc60-4d00-b022-8367ccd85f5f_2386x2711.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhHz!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1294af-fc60-4d00-b022-8367ccd85f5f_2386x2711.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhHz!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1294af-fc60-4d00-b022-8367ccd85f5f_2386x2711.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhHz!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1294af-fc60-4d00-b022-8367ccd85f5f_2386x2711.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhHz!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F3a1294af-fc60-4d00-b022-8367ccd85f5f_2386x2711.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>The largest project got funded include Basrah refinery upgrading, water supply, electricity reconstruction, social protection, irrigation, and emergency development.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Vtzc!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd0c8c3c-1092-4c4e-8e6c-cd021ea52c9c_2506x1840.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Vtzc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd0c8c3c-1092-4c4e-8e6c-cd021ea52c9c_2506x1840.png" width="1456" height="1069" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Vtzc!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd0c8c3c-1092-4c4e-8e6c-cd021ea52c9c_2506x1840.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Vtzc!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd0c8c3c-1092-4c4e-8e6c-cd021ea52c9c_2506x1840.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Vtzc!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd0c8c3c-1092-4c4e-8e6c-cd021ea52c9c_2506x1840.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!Vtzc!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd0c8c3c-1092-4c4e-8e6c-cd021ea52c9c_2506x1840.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3>Climate finance by sub-sector</h3><p>The top sub-sectors reciving the funds are oil and gas upstream, large water systems, electricity transmission, social protection, fossil-fuel energy manufacturing, non-renewable energy generation, agricultural water resources and hydropower. This also explains why these are debt-financed as they are not mostly directly related to adaptation or loss and damage or at least cross-cutting. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k53r!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd998f34-7e19-43d6-96d4-f8d81076ea2b_2506x1840.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k53r!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd998f34-7e19-43d6-96d4-f8d81076ea2b_2506x1840.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k53r!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd998f34-7e19-43d6-96d4-f8d81076ea2b_2506x1840.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k53r!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd998f34-7e19-43d6-96d4-f8d81076ea2b_2506x1840.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k53r!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd998f34-7e19-43d6-96d4-f8d81076ea2b_2506x1840.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k53r!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd998f34-7e19-43d6-96d4-f8d81076ea2b_2506x1840.png" width="2506" height="1840" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/bd998f34-7e19-43d6-96d4-f8d81076ea2b_2506x1840.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1840,&quot;width&quot;:2506,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:302669,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;Top Iraq sub-sectors&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="Top Iraq sub-sectors" title="Top Iraq sub-sectors" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k53r!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd998f34-7e19-43d6-96d4-f8d81076ea2b_2506x1840.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k53r!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd998f34-7e19-43d6-96d4-f8d81076ea2b_2506x1840.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k53r!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd998f34-7e19-43d6-96d4-f8d81076ea2b_2506x1840.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!k53r!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd998f34-7e19-43d6-96d4-f8d81076ea2b_2506x1840.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Dr. Ahmed Gailani</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[العراق والتغير المناخي: بين وعد التمويل وواجب التأهيل]]></title><description><![CDATA[&#1605;&#1593; &#1578;&#1587;&#1606;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577; &#1587;&#1585;&#1608;&#1577; &#1593;&#1576;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575;&#1581;&#1583; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577;&#1548; &#1606;&#1578;&#1605;&#1606;&#1609; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1582;&#1575;&#1604;&#1589; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1608;&#1601;&#1610;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1581;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1577;.]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/aa1</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/aa1</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 24 May 2026 11:08:05 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e16b849f-767a-49af-841c-5404a0e20b9e_1200x630.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p style="text-align: right;">&#1605;&#1593; &#1578;&#1587;&#1606;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577; &#1587;&#1585;&#1608;&#1577; &#1593;&#1576;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575;&#1581;&#1583; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577;&#1548; &#1606;&#1578;&#1605;&#1606;&#1609; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1582;&#1575;&#1604;&#1589; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1608;&#1601;&#1610;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1581;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;. &#1601;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1607;&#1575;&#1605;&#1588;&#1610;&#1577; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1592;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1590;. &#1601;&#1610; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1605;&#1548; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1602;&#1583; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1575;&#1576;&#1575;&#1611; 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&#1604;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1571;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1587;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1593; &#1578;&#1608;&#1580;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; (&#1608;&#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1581;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1608;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610; &#1608;&#1576;&#1585;&#1610;&#1591;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;) &#1604;&#1578;&#1576;&#1606;&#1610; &#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1581;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1593;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604; &#1581;&#1583;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; CBAM. </p><ul><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1582;&#1585; &#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1587;&#1577; &#1605;&#1581;&#1578;&#1585;&#1605;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1580;&#1575;&#1605;&#1593;&#1577; Imperial College London &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1605;&#1608;&#1602;&#1577;<strong>&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1610;&#1576;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1610; &#1581;&#1602; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1605;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; </strong>&#1576;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1575;&#1602; &#1635;&#1632;&#1637; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1585;&#1577; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1637;-&#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637;</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WTzG!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdb5f0cf6-703d-40eb-be6b-6f72ac1a80ca_1405x826.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WTzG!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdb5f0cf6-703d-40eb-be6b-6f72ac1a80ca_1405x826.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WTzG!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdb5f0cf6-703d-40eb-be6b-6f72ac1a80ca_1405x826.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WTzG!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdb5f0cf6-703d-40eb-be6b-6f72ac1a80ca_1405x826.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WTzG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdb5f0cf6-703d-40eb-be6b-6f72ac1a80ca_1405x826.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!WTzG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fdb5f0cf6-703d-40eb-be6b-6f72ac1a80ca_1405x826.jpeg" width="584" height="343.33380782918147" 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p></p><ul><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1608;&#1607;&#1606;&#1575; &#1606;&#1578;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1604;: <strong>&#1607;&#1604; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1605;&#1572;&#1607;&#1604;&#1577; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1603;&#1610; &#1578;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1567;</strong></p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1571;&#1578;&#1610; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1606;&#1575; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1605;&#1578;&#1590;&#1585;&#1585; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591;. &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1571;&#1578;&#1610; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1606;&#1575; &#1606;&#1603;&#1578;&#1576; &#1603;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1580;&#1605;&#1610;&#1604;&#1577; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1610;&#1571;&#1578;&#1610; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1585;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606;&#1581;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1571;&#1606; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1580;&#1607;&#1577; &#1601;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583; &#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577;. &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1610;&#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1608;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1591;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1577; &#1608;&#1605;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1576;&#1575;&#1578; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577;&#1548; &#1579;&#1605; &#1604;&#1575; &#1588;&#1610;&#1569;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1608;&#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577;&#1611;&#1548; &#1604;&#1605;&#1606; &#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583; &#1601;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1604;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1602;&#1575;&#1588;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1580;&#1608;&#1593; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;:<strong> [<a href="https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/9d4?r=6j3ey9">&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1580;&#1608;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1587;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1582;&#1610;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1577;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;</a>]</strong>. &#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1591;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1606;&#1606;&#1575;&#1602;&#1588;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1605; &#1578;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604;&#1577;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1603;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607; &#1585;&#1571;&#1610; &#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610; &#1571;&#1608; &#1588;&#1593;&#1575;&#1585; &#1573;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1548; &#1604;&#1575; &#1603;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607; &#1605;&#1604;&#1601; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610; &#1608;&#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610; &#1608;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610; &#1583;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1571;&#1607;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; </h3><ul><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1606;&#1602;&#1575;&#1588;&#1575;&#1611; &#1571;&#1603;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1585;&#1601;&#1575;&#1611; &#1594;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;. &#1607;&#1608; &#1610;&#1605;&#1587; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1569; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1581;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1580;&#1585;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1585; &#1605;&#1578;&#1593;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577;: &#1608;&#1594;&#1576;&#1575;&#1585; &#1608;&#1605;&#1608;&#1580;&#1575;&#1578; &#1581;&#1585; &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1601;&#1585;&#1589; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;. &#1607;&#1608; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611; &#1610;&#1605;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1603;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1610; &#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1581;&#1605;&#1610; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607; &#1601;&#1610; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1610;&#1585;&#1576;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585; &#1576;&#1573;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1608;&#1603;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1606; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1593;&#1585;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1570;&#1579;&#1575;&#1585; &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;. &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575; &#1588;&#1581;&#1577; &#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1607;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1589;&#1581;&#1585;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1605;&#1604;&#1581; &#1578;&#1585;&#1576;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1608;&#1580;&#1575;&#1578; &#1581;&#1585;&#1548; &#1608;&#1593;&#1608;&#1575;&#1589;&#1601; &#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1590;&#1594;&#1591; &#1605;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1610;&#1583; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1581;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1610;&#1577;. &#1608;&#1576;&#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577;&#1548; &#1601;&#1573;&#1606; &#1635;&#1641;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1578;&#1589;&#1581;&#1585;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1637;&#1637;.&#1637;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1605;&#1607;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1589;&#1581;&#1585;&#1548; &#1608;&#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1578;&#1583;&#1607;&#1608;&#1585; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1575;&#1590;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1605;&#1604;&#1581; &#1605;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1610;&#1583; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1585;&#1576;&#1577;. &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578; &#1571;&#1585;&#1602;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1586;&#1610;&#1606;&#1577;. &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1571;&#1585;&#1602;&#1575;&#1605; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1604;&#1606;&#1575; &#1573;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1607;&#1608; <strong>&#1605;&#1604;&#1601; &#1571;&#1605;&#1606; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;</strong> &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1604;&#1601; &#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1608;&#1576;&#1580;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1548; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1571;&#1606; &#1606;&#1582;&#1585;&#1580; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1606;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1591;&#1581;&#1610;&#1577;:</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1607;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1590;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1567; &#1604;&#1575;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1607;&#1604; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1583;&#1605;&#1585; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1610;&#1567; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1575;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1610;&#1548; &#1606;&#1593;&#1605;. &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1603;&#1608;&#1606;&#1607; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1594;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1601;&#1607;&#1605;&#1607;&#1575; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607;. &#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1602;&#1591;&#1585; &#1608;&#1593;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1608;&#1610;&#1578; &#1608;&#1605;&#1589;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1583;&#1606; &#1608;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590; &#1608;&#1578;&#1576;&#1606;&#1610; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604;&#1577; &#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1576;&#1604;&#1575; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1577; &#1602;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1608;&#1581;&#1605;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1607;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1637; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1606;&#1602;&#1604;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1602;&#1575;&#1588; &#1605;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605; &#1593;&#1575;&#1605; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1585;&#1602;&#1575;&#1605; &#1608;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601;&#1607; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1635;&#1642; &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1576;&#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1548; &#1579;&#1605; &#1608;&#1590;&#1593; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601;&#1575;&#1611; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1610;&#1589;&#1604; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1637;&#1642; &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637;&#1548; &#1608;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591;&#1575;&#1611; &#1610;&#1589;&#1604; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1633;&#1639;&#1642; &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637;&#1548; &#1571;&#1610; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1603;&#1604;&#1610; &#1610;&#1589;&#1604; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1634;&#1634;&#1642; &#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1578;&#1608;&#1601;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1608;&#1607;&#1606;&#1575; &#1606;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1603;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577;: &#1571;&#1606;&#1578; &#1603;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;: &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1605;&#1575; &#1571;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1607; &#1576;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1610;&#1548; &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1605;&#1575; &#1571;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1607; &#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1581;&#1589;&#1604;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1606;&#1602;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;. &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1578;&#1591;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576; &#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1576;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1605;&#1572;&#1607;&#1604;&#1577; &#1608;&#1602;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1608;&#1575;&#1589;&#1604; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605; &#1605;&#1593; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591;&#1577; &#1576;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1603;&#1601;&#1608;&#1572;&#1577; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575;. </p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1610;&#1575;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1610;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581;&#1577; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1608;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1591;&#1610;&#1577;. </p></li></ul><h3>&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610; &#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; </h3><ul><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1590;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1585;&#1594;&#1605; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1602;&#1610;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1585;&#1608;&#1601;&#1577;&#1548; &#1578;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;&#1578; <strong>&#1605;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577;</strong> &#1601;&#1610; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1610; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1580;&#1575;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1575;&#1574;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1591;&#1604;&#1608;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;. &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1589;&#1608;&#1583; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575; &#1605;&#1580;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;&#1577; &#1573;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1578;&#1608;&#1589;&#1610;&#1601; &#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;: &#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1580;&#1607;&#1577; &#1601;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1586;&#1610;&#1577; &#1571;&#1593;&#1591;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1593;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1575;&#1611; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1601;&#1578;&#1585;&#1577; &#1602;&#1589;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577;&#1548; &#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1606;&#1592;&#1610;&#1605; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601; &#1576;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604;&#1548; &#1608;&#1583;&#1593;&#1605;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590;&#1610;&#1548; &#1608;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1578; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1607;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1571;&#1587;&#1607;&#1605;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1573;&#1606;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1608;&#1579;&#1575;&#1574;&#1602; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1571;&#1607;&#1605;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; <strong>&#1578;&#1615;&#1593;&#1583; &#1571;&#1607;&#1605; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577;</strong> &#1604;&#1571;&#1610; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1608;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; (&#1610;&#1585;&#1580;&#1609; &#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1580;&#1593;&#1577; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; <strong><a href="https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/67a?r=6j3ey9">&#1581;&#1603;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1610;&#1585; &#1608;&#1601;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;</a>)</strong></p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606;&#1580;&#1575;&#1586;&#1593;&#1583;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1575;&#1574;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577;</strong> (&#1575;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577;): &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1578;&#1602;&#1610;&#1610;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1578;&#1610;&#1575;&#1580;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1582;&#1591;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1594; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1573;&#1580;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1585;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1593; &#1589;&#1606;&#1583;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585;&#1548; &#1578;&#1602;&#1585;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1601;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1604; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1587;&#1606;&#1578;&#1610;&#1606;&#1548; &#1605;&#1572;&#1588;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1588;&#1575;&#1588;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;.</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!ly5j!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F81e29807-200c-45a2-be5f-904e986479a5_1403x1471.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><ul><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578; &#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605;&#1577; &#1571;&#1587;&#1605;&#1575;&#1569; &#1608;&#1579;&#1575;&#1574;&#1602;. <strong>&#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1594;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1610;&#1601;&#1607;&#1605;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606;&#1581;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1576;&#1606;&#1608;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;</strong>. &#1601;&#1589;&#1606;&#1583;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1585;&#1601;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1603;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1593; &#8220;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#8221;&#1563; &#1576;&#1604; &#1610;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1593; &#1608;&#1579;&#1575;&#1574;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1582;&#1591;&#1591;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1572;&#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1608;&#1582;&#1591;&#1608;&#1591; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1548; &#1608;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1577; &#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1608;&#1587;&#1585;&#1593;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1578;&#1582;&#1575;&#1584; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1548; &#1593;&#1583;&#1575; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1601;&#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1592;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1578;&#1580;&#1607; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1603;&#1587;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1579;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606;&#1610; &#1575;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606; &#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604;&#1607; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1601;&#1578;&#1585;&#1577; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1602;&#1583; &#1610;&#1586;&#1610;&#1583; &#1593;&#1606; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1584;&#1607;&#1576;&#1578; &#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1576;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1580; &#1608;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1605;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1603;&#1577; &#1605;&#1593; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1580;&#1607;&#1575;&#1578; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1588;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1575;&#1601;&#1592;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1573;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1605; &#1603;&#1608;&#1585;&#1583;&#1587;&#1578;&#1575;&#1606;. &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607; &#1610;&#1579;&#1576;&#1578; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1601; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1604;&#1607; &#1576;&#1610;&#1578; &#1601;&#1606;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1580;&#1604;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1610;&#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1602;&#1575;&#1588; &#1593;&#1575;&#1605; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1585;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;. </p></li></ul><h3 style="text-align: right;">&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1574;: &#1581;&#1604; &#1605;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577;</h3><ul><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1581;&#1604; &#1605;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1581;&#1580;&#1610;&#1605; &#1583;&#1608;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1602;&#1587;&#1605; &#1607;&#1575;&#1605;&#1588;&#1610; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1581;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1591;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1637; &#1585;&#1594;&#1605; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1580;&#1575;&#1586;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; (&#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607;). </p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;"> &#1601;&#1581;&#1604; &#1605;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1571;&#1608; &#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1607;&#1610;&#1603;&#1604; &#1590;&#1593;&#1610;&#1601; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1583;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585;&#1577; &#1571;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1578;&#1601;&#1589;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1573;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;. &#1607;&#1608; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1610;&#1605;&#1587; &#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1608;&#1575;&#1589;&#1604; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1592;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1579;&#1576;&#1610;&#1578; &#1589;&#1608;&#1585;&#1578;&#1607; &#1603;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1580;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1575;&#1604;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;"><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1592;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1608;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1591;&#1610;&#1577;</strong>&#1548; &#1604;&#1575; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575;. &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583;&#1548; &#1608;&#1583;&#1608;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1578;&#1591;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1583;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1601;&#1584; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1605;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1572;&#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1571;&#1583;&#1575;&#1569;. &#1601;&#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1587;&#1604;&#1587;&#1604;&#1577; &#1591;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1601;&#1602;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1608;&#1603;&#1604; &#1605;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1576;&#1577; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1585; &#1573;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601; &#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1601;&#1573;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1606; &#1610;&#1582;&#1587;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591;&#1563; &#1602;&#1583; &#1610;&#1582;&#1587;&#1585; &#1606;&#1575;&#1601;&#1584;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607;&#1575;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1571;&#1593;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583; &#1571;&#1606; &#1571;&#1608;&#1604; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1578;&#1582;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577; &#1607;&#1608;&#1601;&#1603; &#1575;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1575;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1585;&#1576;&#1591;&#1607; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1588;&#1585;&#1577;&#1548; &#1571;&#1608; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1603;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1606;&#1610; &#1603;&#1581;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1587;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;&#1548; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1575;&#1583; &#1604;&#1573;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1608;&#1590;&#1593;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1548; &#1579;&#1605; &#1578;&#1591;&#1608;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1583;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585;&#1577; &#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590;</h3><ul><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1606;&#1601;&#1589;&#1604; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;. &#1608;&#1605;&#1606; &#1610;&#1592;&#1606; &#1571;&#1606; &#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601; &#1605;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1587;&#1601;&#1585; &#1608;&#1608;&#1601;&#1608;&#1583; &#1608;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1601;&#1607;&#1605; &#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1594; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603;. &#1601;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1578;&#1572;&#1579;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1579;&#1575;&#1606;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1589;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1606;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1601;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1548; <strong>&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590; &#1581;&#1590;&#1608;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1575;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;</strong> &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1590;&#1610;&#1577;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1606;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1581;&#1590;&#1608;&#1585; &#1582;&#1580;&#1608;&#1604; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1601;&#1575;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;. &#1608;&#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1575;&#1605;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1588;&#1585;&#1610;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1583;&#1576;&#1610;&#1548; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1604;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1583;&#1608;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1601;&#1575;&#1593; &#1593;&#1606; &#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1580;&#1605;&#1608;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1584;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577;&#1548; &#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1601;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1581;&#1601;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1604;. &#1579;&#1605; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1591;&#1608;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1602;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1608;&#1589;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1608;&#1602;&#1593; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; <strong>&#1573;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1605;&#1580;&#1605;&#1608;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1600;&#1639;&#1639; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1610;&#1606;</strong>&#1548; &#1608;&#1607;&#1610; &#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578; &#1587;&#1607;&#1604;&#1577; &#1571;&#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611;. &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1578;&#1582;&#1575;&#1576; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1571;&#1593;&#1590;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1601;&#1610; &#1604;&#1580;&#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577; &#1604;&#1587;&#1603;&#1585;&#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1610;&#1593;&#1603;&#1587; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1593;&#1583; &#1605;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1581;&#1575;&#1590;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1571;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1602;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1578;&#1608;&#1601;&#1585; &#1604;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1593;&#1605;.</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hpt9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41919e25-4ce9-4da7-b377-ab8838930a43_2735x1286.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!hpt9!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F41919e25-4ce9-4da7-b377-ab8838930a43_2735x1286.png 424w, 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><ul><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1608;&#1607;&#1606;&#1575; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1571;&#1606; &#1606;&#1601;&#1607;&#1605; &#1588;&#1610;&#1574;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611;:&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1605;&#1580;&#1605;&#1608;&#1593;&#1577; &#1571;&#1588;&#1582;&#1575;&#1589; &#1610;&#1584;&#1607;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590; &#1607;&#1608; &#1584;&#1575;&#1603;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1603;&#1604; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1603;&#1604; &#1601;&#1602;&#1585;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587;&#1548; &#1608;&#1603;&#1604; &#1606;&#1589; &#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587;&#1577; &#1571;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1571;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1548; &#1602;&#1583; &#1610;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611; &#1571;&#1583;&#1575;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1601;&#1575;&#1593; &#1593;&#1606; &#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1571;&#1608; &#1604;&#1604;&#1581;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;. &#1608;&#1604;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1603;&#1610;&#1585; &#1576;&#1573;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1578;&#1591;&#1576;&#1610;&#1602; &#1571;&#1608; &#1602;&#1575;&#1593;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1571;&#1593;&#1590;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1582;&#1591;&#1608;&#1577; &#1604;&#1610; &#1588;&#1582;&#1589;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1587;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1575;&#1601;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;. &#1578;&#1604;&#1582;&#1610;&#1589; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1585;&#1576;&#1591;&#1607;&#1575; &#1576;&#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1608;&#1601;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590;&#1610;&#1606; &#1607;&#1608; &#1580;&#1586;&#1569; &#1605;&#1606; &#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569; &#1584;&#1575;&#1603;&#1585;&#1577; &#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601;. </p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1604; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603;. <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1578;&#1583;&#1593;&#1605; &#1608;&#1601;&#1583;&#1607;&#1575; &#1576;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1603;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;</strong>&#1548; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1581;&#1590;&#1608;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1576;&#1585;&#1608;&#1578;&#1608;&#1603;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1576;&#1604; &#1582;&#1591; &#1583;&#1601;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610; &#1608;&#1583;&#1576;&#1604;&#1608;&#1605;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610;. &#1606;&#1581;&#1606; &#1604;&#1575; &#1606;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1571;&#1606; &#1606;&#1602;&#1604;&#1583; &#1571;&#1581;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1571;&#1606; &#1606;&#1578;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1581;&#1605;&#1610; &#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1607;&#1575; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1601;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1590;&#1610;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; <strong>&#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1583;&#1593;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590;</strong> &#1593;&#1576;&#1585;: &#1578;&#1579;&#1576;&#1610;&#1578; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581; &#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601; &#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583; &#1576;&#1585;&#1608;&#1578;&#1608;&#1603;&#1608;&#1604; &#1582;&#1575;&#1589; &#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1576;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1591;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1578;&#1575;&#1583;&#1548; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607; &#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1593;&#1575;&#1576;&#1585; &#1604;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1608;&#1601;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577;.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1580;&#1585;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1580;&#1581;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1576;&#1577; &#1606;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1608;&#1575;&#1569; </h3><ul><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1573;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; <strong>&#1578;&#1580;&#1585;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1576;&#1577; &#1606;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1608;&#1575;&#1569;</strong>. &#1575;&#1601;&#1578;&#1578;&#1575;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1586; &#1601;&#1610; &#1576;&#1594;&#1583;&#1575;&#1583;&#1548; &#1605;&#1593; &#1605;&#1606;&#1592;&#1608;&#1605;&#1577; &#1605;&#1581;&#1591;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583; &#1606;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1608;&#1575;&#1569;&#1548; &#1610;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1582;&#1591;&#1608;&#1577; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1607; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611;: &#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1575; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1591;&#1576;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578;. &#1608;&#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1593;&#1588;&#1585;&#1610;&#1606; &#1605;&#1581;&#1591;&#1577; &#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1576;&#1577;&#1548; &#1605;&#1593; &#1573;&#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1585;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1581;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1607;&#1608; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1590;&#1576;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1608;&#1593; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1610;&#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1579;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1591;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1607;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1580;&#1575;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1610; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591; &#1571;&#1606; &#1606;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1573;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1608;&#1575;&#1569; &#1580;&#1610;&#1583; &#1571;&#1608; &#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1587;&#1591; &#1571;&#1608; &#1587;&#1610;&#1574;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1580;&#1575;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1610; &#1607;&#1608; &#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1604;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1610;&#1608;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1605;&#1606; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601;&#1577; &#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1578;&#1576;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1606; &#1571;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1583;&#1607;&#1608;&#1585;&#1548; &#1608;&#1573;&#1602;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1591;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1589; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1607;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1571;&#1606; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1576;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;.</p></li><li><p style="text-align: right;">&#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1590;&#1576;&#1591; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580;&#1607; &#1605;&#1604;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1580;&#1585;&#1576;&#1577; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1586;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1580;&#1581;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569; &#1608;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1594; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; MRV &#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1605;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1578;&#1602;&#1610;&#1587; &#1608;&#1578;&#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1574;&#1610;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1608;&#1589;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1580;&#1586;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1585;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1638;-&#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; </h3><p>&#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1571;&#1585;&#1575;&#1583;&#1578; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1606;&#1602;&#1604;&#1577; &#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1585;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1638;-&#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1548; &#1601;&#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1576;&#1585;&#1571;&#1610;&#1610; &#1571;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1608;&#1589;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;:</p><p style="text-align: right;">&#1633;. &#1573;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1578;&#1571;&#1607;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1610;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1585;&#1576;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1588;&#1585;&#1577;&#1548; &#1571;&#1608; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1603;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1606;&#1610; &#1575;&#1606;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1590; &#1575;&#1593;&#1591;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1582;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1586;&#1605; &#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1608;&#1601;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1577; &#1578;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1583; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1579;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1573;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1571;&#1608; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1575;&#1579; &#1583;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585;&#1577; &#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577;.</p><p style="text-align: right;">&#1634;. &#1578;&#1588;&#1603;&#1610;&#1604; &#1582;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591;&#1577; &#1576;&#1605;&#1603;&#1578;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577;&#1548; &#1578;&#1590;&#1605; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1591;&#1610;&#1591;&#1548; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1607;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1573;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1605; &#1603;&#1608;&#1585;&#1583;&#1587;&#1578;&#1575;&#1606;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1573;&#1586;&#1575;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1591;&#1610;&#1604; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;.</p><p style="text-align: right;">&#1635;. &#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1604;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1635;&#1632; &#1610;&#1608;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611;: &#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1610;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1567; &#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1601;&#1567; &#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1571;&#1582;&#1585;&#1567; &#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1610;&#1607;&#1583;&#1583; &#1579;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606;&#1581;&#1610;&#1606;&#1567; &#1579;&#1605; &#1573;&#1589;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585; &#1582;&#1591;&#1577; &#1573;&#1606;&#1602;&#1575;&#1584; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593;.</p><p style="text-align: right;">&#1636;. &#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1582;&#1591;&#1577; &#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1548; &#1605;&#1593; &#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1572;&#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583; &#1605;&#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1607;&#1575; &#1603;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1580;&#1605;&#1610;&#1604;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1601;.</p><p style="text-align: right;">&#1637;. &#1573;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1583;&#1593;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590; &#1576;&#1605;&#1610;&#1586;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1601;&#1608;&#1610;&#1590; &#1608;&#1605;&#1606;&#1589;&#1577; &#1605;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601;&#1577; &#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577;&#1548; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590; &#1576;&#1604;&#1575; &#1584;&#1575;&#1603;&#1585;&#1577; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1573;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1583;&#1569; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1601;&#1585; &#1603;&#1604; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577;.</p><p style="text-align: right;">&#1639;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1580;&#1585;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1576;&#1577; &#1606;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1608;&#1575;&#1572; &#1604;&#1573;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1606;&#1592;&#1575;&#1605; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1594; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; MRV &#1608;&#1585;&#1576;&#1591;&#1607; &#1576;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1575;&#1601;&#1592;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1604;&#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;.</p><p style="text-align: right;">&#1640;. &#1573;&#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1603; &#1573;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1605; &#1603;&#1608;&#1585;&#1583;&#1587;&#1578;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1575;&#1601;&#1592;&#1575;&#1578; &#1603;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1569; &#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1610;&#1610;&#1606;&#1548; &#1604;&#1575; &#1603;&#1605;&#1604;&#1581;&#1602; &#1573;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1548; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1601; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583; &#1581;&#1583;&#1608;&#1583; &#1573;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1588;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1575;&#1611;.</p><p style="text-align: right;">&#1641;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1576;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1589;&#1585;&#1610;&#1581;&#1575;&#1578; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1590;&#1576;&#1591;&#1577; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1581;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;. &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1585;&#1610;&#1602; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606; &#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1548; &#1608;&#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1548; &#1608;&#1589;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1576;&#1581;&#1548; &#1608;&#1602;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577; &#1571;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1604;&#1591; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1610;&#1590;&#1593;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575;.</p><p style="text-align: right;">&#1633;&#1632;. &#1573;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1605;&#1580;&#1604;&#1587; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610; &#1589;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1604;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1582;&#1576;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1610;&#1606; &#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1548; &#1610;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1593; &#1588;&#1607;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1610;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1585;&#1571;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1576;&#1588;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1590;&#1575;&#1610;&#1575; &#1584;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1604;&#1577;. </p><p style="text-align: right;">&#1583;. &#1571;&#1581;&#1605;&#1583; &#1603;&#1614;&#1610;&#1600;&#1600;&#1600;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610; </p><p style="text-align: right;">&#1582;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1608;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; - &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Iraq Electricity System: Fundamentals, Failures, and Reform]]></title><description><![CDATA[Summary]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/iraq-electricity-system-fundamentals</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/iraq-electricity-system-fundamentals</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 17 May 2026 11:14:44 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/3d25ddfa-2945-4059-8e4e-6e58bbee1361_1200x630.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<h3>Summary</h3><p style="text-align: justify;">All Iraq electricity dilemmas can be fixed once good governance and law enfocrement in place with whole-system designers in charge. </p><h3>Introduction</h3><p>Iraq&#8217;s electricity crisis is often described as a shortage of megawatts. The description is partly correct, but it is incomplete. The country has added plants, signed contracts, imported electricity and announced repeated reform plans, yet households and businesses still organise daily life around outages, voltage instability and private generators. The persistence of the crisis means the system is failing at more than one point.</p><p>Electricity is <strong>a chain</strong> of conversions. Fuel must become power; power must become delivered energy; delivered energy must become measured consumption; measured consumption must become bills; bills must become collected revenue; and revenue must return as fuel payments, maintenance, grid repair and investment. A failure anywhere in this chain eventually appears to the consumer as <strong>unreliable service</strong>.</p><p>In 2024, Iraq recorded about <strong>165.6 TWh</strong> of total energy when domestic generation, imports and investment energy are counted together. Net energy sold to consumers was about 67.5 TWh, or roughly <strong>41%</strong> of the total. The difference is not a single number and should not be attributed to electricity theft. It includes own-use, technical losses, unmetered consumption, billing gaps and collection weaknesses. The central point is that a large share of energy entering the system does not become recorded, billable service.</p><p>The commercial failure is tied to trust. Iraqis already pay for electricity when reliability is credible. The World Bank&#8217;s project appraisal put private diesel-generator electricity at about 40 US cents per kWh, far above the grid price in that context. This is not evidence that households are unwilling to pay; it is evidence that households buy dependable hours where the public grid has failed to provide them. Tariff reform therefore has to be linked to visible service improvement, credible metering and explicit protection for low-income consumers.</p><p>This article takes a <strong>whole-system view</strong> of Iraq&#8217;s electricity crisis. It starts from the fundamentals of how an electricity system is supposed to work, then follows Iraq&#8217;s own data through the chain from fuel and generation to networks, delivery, metering, billing, collection and reinvestment. The purpose is not to repeat the familiar claim that Iraq needs more projects or more investment. It is to show how weaknesses in system design, institutional accountability, fuel coordination, operations and commercial discipline can turn large spending into unreliable service. The article then uses that diagnosis to set out a reform sequence and roadmap: what Iraq should fix immediately, what should be built over the next five years, and what deeper market and institutional reforms become credible only after the basics work.</p><h3 style="text-align: justify;"><strong>1. Fundamentals of electricity system design </strong></h3><p>Electricity system design has different complex and interwined layers (see Figure below). Fuel and primary energy supply make generation possible. Physical assets turn that fuel into electricity and move it through the system. Governance determines whether those assets are planned, regulated and held accountable. Operation turns equipment into reliable service hour by hour. Finance converts delivered electricity into the money needed for maintenance and reinvestment. Contracts allocate risk and incentives. Trust determines whether consumers believe the public system is worth paying for. The final outcome, reliable and affordable electricity, is produced by the system.</p><p><strong>Iraq&#8217;s crisis persists because failure accumulates across several layers at once</strong>. A plant can exist but lack the right fuel. Power can be generated but huge losses through the network. Delivered electricity can remain unmetered, unpaid or politically difficult to price. Revenue can fail to return as maintenance and investment. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3FGH!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F89a50394-74d6-4570-8410-dbdfbc584afb_1848x1604.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3FGH!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F89a50394-74d6-4570-8410-dbdfbc584afb_1848x1604.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3FGH!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F89a50394-74d6-4570-8410-dbdfbc584afb_1848x1604.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3FGH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F89a50394-74d6-4570-8410-dbdfbc584afb_1848x1604.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3FGH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F89a50394-74d6-4570-8410-dbdfbc584afb_1848x1604.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3FGH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F89a50394-74d6-4570-8410-dbdfbc584afb_1848x1604.png" width="596" height="517.4065934065934" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/89a50394-74d6-4570-8410-dbdfbc584afb_1848x1604.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:1264,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:596,&quot;bytes&quot;:385585,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/197836252?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F89a50394-74d6-4570-8410-dbdfbc584afb_1848x1604.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3FGH!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F89a50394-74d6-4570-8410-dbdfbc584afb_1848x1604.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3FGH!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F89a50394-74d6-4570-8410-dbdfbc584afb_1848x1604.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3FGH!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F89a50394-74d6-4570-8410-dbdfbc584afb_1848x1604.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3FGH!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F89a50394-74d6-4570-8410-dbdfbc584afb_1848x1604.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h4>1.1 Electricity is a special commodity </h4><p>Electricity is different from oil, wheat or cement because it is produced and consumed almost continuously. The system has to balance demand and supply in real time while maintaining frequency, voltage and reserves. Physical laws shape the sector, but institutions decide how those physical constraints are managed.</p><p>This is why electricity reform cannot be reduced to construction of new plants or cables. A power system needs dispatch rules, fuel allocation, network planning, metering, billing, payment discipline, consumer protection and accountable regulation. The citizen experiences this institutional architecture through the simplest possible outcome: whether the lights stay on or not. </p><h4 style="text-align: justify;">1.2 Primary energy sources</h4><p>The electricity chain begins with primary energy: the fuels and natural resources that can be converted into power. In a thermal system, this means natural gas, oil products, coal or other combustible fuels. In a hydro, solar or wind system, it means water flows, sunlight and wind conditions. The basic principle is the same: electricity reliability starts before the power plant. A generating unit can only perform as expected if the energy source behind it is available, suitable for the technology, and delivered at the right time.</p><p>Primary energy choices <strong>shape</strong> the whole power system including energy security. They affect generation cost, plant efficiency, emissions, maintenance needs, import exposure and resilience to shocks. A system that depends heavily on one fuel may be efficient when that fuel is abundant and cheap, but fragile when supply is disrupted, prices rise or infrastructure fails. A more diversified supply mix can improve energy security, but only if the technologies, networks and operating rules are capable of managing that diversity.</p><h4 style="text-align: justify;">1.3 Assets need governance </h4><p>Plants, grids, substations and meters create the possibility of service. Governance turns that asset base into a system. It sets planning priorities, defines accountability, links generation with network investment, sets tariff logic, protects consumers and creates the information base on which investors and policymakers can act.</p><p>Iraq&#8217;s electricity institutions have often treated generation, fuel, transmission, distribution, retail and finance as separate problems. The result is a sector with a blame game: fuel supply blames generation, generation blames the grid, and consumers blame service quality but all mostl owned and managed by the government. <strong>Governance is the layer that prevents those excuses from becoming a permanent operating model</strong>.</p><h4 style="text-align: justify;">1.4 Operation create reliability </h4><p>Reliability is created hour by hour. Operators must decide which plants run, how imports are scheduled, where network constraints occur, how reserves are managed and how outages are handled. Installed capacity becomes useful only when it is available, fueled, dispatched and connected to the network without creating new bottlenecks.</p><p>In Iraq, summer demand, fuel constraints and network weaknesses meet in real time. This makes operational discipline as important as new investment in generation. Maintenance, spare parts, fuel quality, dispatch control and network monitoring can raise the value of existing assets before the country adds another project.</p><h4 style="text-align: justify;">1.5 Finance</h4><p>A public electricity system remains fragile when delivered energy cannot be converted into revenue. Meters, customer databases, accurate bills, convenient payment channels and enforceable collection rules are not administrative details. They are the machinery that turns electricity into a financially sustainable service.</p><p>The political balance is delicate. Tariff reform without service improvement looks like charging more for failure. Service improvement without revenue reform leaves the sector dependent on emergency budgets. </p><h4 style="text-align: justify;">1.6 Markets and contract require foundations</h4><p>Market reform is not the same as privatisation. A market assigns functions, payments and risks. It defines who generates, who buys, who dispatches, who pays for networks, who carries fuel risk and who is accountable when performance fails. Countries can organize these roles through vertically integrated utilities, single buyers, wholesale markets or retail competition.</p><p>Electricity systems can be organised in different ways, depending on how generation, networks, retail supply and consumers are linked. In a <strong>vertically integrated</strong> system (the case for Iraq), one state utility or dominant company controls most of the chain: generation, transmission, distribution and supply. In a <strong>single-buyer</strong> system, generators sell to one central buyer, which then supplies the grid or distribution companies. In a <strong>wholesale market</strong>, generators sell electricity through contracts or a power exchange to retailers, distributors or large users. In <strong>retail competition (</strong>the case for Great Britain<strong>)</strong>, consumers can choose among suppliers, while the grid remains regulated because networks are natural monopolies.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yWIq!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40b7e1e3-0571-4f98-85f7-dd0490d59d3e_1672x941.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yWIq!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40b7e1e3-0571-4f98-85f7-dd0490d59d3e_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yWIq!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40b7e1e3-0571-4f98-85f7-dd0490d59d3e_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yWIq!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40b7e1e3-0571-4f98-85f7-dd0490d59d3e_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yWIq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40b7e1e3-0571-4f98-85f7-dd0490d59d3e_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yWIq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40b7e1e3-0571-4f98-85f7-dd0490d59d3e_1672x941.png" width="1456" height="819" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/40b7e1e3-0571-4f98-85f7-dd0490d59d3e_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:819,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:1415891,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/197836252?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40b7e1e3-0571-4f98-85f7-dd0490d59d3e_1672x941.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yWIq!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40b7e1e3-0571-4f98-85f7-dd0490d59d3e_1672x941.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yWIq!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40b7e1e3-0571-4f98-85f7-dd0490d59d3e_1672x941.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yWIq!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40b7e1e3-0571-4f98-85f7-dd0490d59d3e_1672x941.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yWIq!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F40b7e1e3-0571-4f98-85f7-dd0490d59d3e_1672x941.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>For Iraq, the lesson is sequencing. Iraq should not jump from a weak vertically integrated system into advanced market design before it has credible metering, dispatch discipline, settlement, cost recovery and regulation. The immediate task is to make each function visible and accountable. Only then can more complex market structures become useful.</p><h4 style="text-align: justify;">1.7 Trust and reliable electricity </h4><p style="text-align: justify;">The final output of an electricity system is not installed capacity, signed contracts or announced investment. It is <strong>reliable electricity</strong> that households, firms and public services can actually use. Reliability means more than the number of hours supplied. It also means predictable service, acceptable voltage, fewer sudden interruptions, faster repair, and confidence that the system will perform when demand is high.</p><p>Trust sits just below that outcome. Consumers are more willing to pay when they believe the service is real, the bill is fair, the meter is accurate, and complaints are handled. When service is poor, payment becomes politically and socially fragile; when payment is weak, maintenance and investment become financially fragile. This is the circular problem at the heart of electricity reform.</p><p>For Iraq, this matters because many citizens already pay for reliability through private or neighbourhood generators. The issue is not simply unwillingness to pay. It is that the public system has not consistently converted payment into dependable service. Restoring trust therefore requires a visible bargain: better supply, credible metering, fair billing, protection for vulnerable consumers, and a clear link between revenue and improved service.</p><h3>2. Iraq electricity system today</h3><p>The system model in Section 1 becomes useful only when it is tested against Iraq&#8217;s actual electricity data. Iraq&#8217;s problem is not simply that demand is high or that generation is insufficient. The 2024 electricity figures show a large electricity system that produces and imports substantial energy, but loses value as that energy moves through the chain from source mix to generation, transmission, distribution, sales and revenue.</p><p>Iraq&#8217;s total produced and imported energy was about 165.6 TWh in 2024 (see below), while net energy sold to consumers was about 67.5 TWh mainly due to significant 50% technical and administrative losses at the distribution level. However, the difference should not be reduced to one explanation. It includes generation own-use, transmission losses, distribution losses, unmetered consumption, billing gaps and commercial weaknesses. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MgwQ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad596afa-6f62-4d25-b7a8-1a000effcecb_2000x866.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MgwQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad596afa-6f62-4d25-b7a8-1a000effcecb_2000x866.png 424w, 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MgwQ!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad596afa-6f62-4d25-b7a8-1a000effcecb_2000x866.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MgwQ!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad596afa-6f62-4d25-b7a8-1a000effcecb_2000x866.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MgwQ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad596afa-6f62-4d25-b7a8-1a000effcecb_2000x866.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!MgwQ!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad596afa-6f62-4d25-b7a8-1a000effcecb_2000x866.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>This section follows that conversion problem across the main layers of the electricity system: service, capacity, network delivery, revenue, geography, fuel and governance. The aim is to avoid treating Iraq&#8217;s electricity crisis is isolation to whole electricity system design. </p><h4>2.1 Service and trust</h4><p>The load across Iraq required an average capacity of about 38.9 GW while the supplied average load was about 19.9 GW in 2024 , or roughly 51% supplied to required (see below). The figures confirm a substantial service gap, but they should not be treated as a full measure of customer experience. Voltage quality, outage timing and summer peak scarcity can make service feel worse than an annual average suggests.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QT1Y!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5b1b62e-74f0-4fcd-9524-d09805aa8467_1194x880.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QT1Y!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5b1b62e-74f0-4fcd-9524-d09805aa8467_1194x880.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QT1Y!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5b1b62e-74f0-4fcd-9524-d09805aa8467_1194x880.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QT1Y!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5b1b62e-74f0-4fcd-9524-d09805aa8467_1194x880.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QT1Y!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5b1b62e-74f0-4fcd-9524-d09805aa8467_1194x880.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QT1Y!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5b1b62e-74f0-4fcd-9524-d09805aa8467_1194x880.png" width="1194" height="880" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e5b1b62e-74f0-4fcd-9524-d09805aa8467_1194x880.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:880,&quot;width&quot;:1194,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:137241,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/197836252?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7789aa8d-cef2-4f95-b691-f493b0c0632c_1700x991.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QT1Y!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5b1b62e-74f0-4fcd-9524-d09805aa8467_1194x880.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QT1Y!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5b1b62e-74f0-4fcd-9524-d09805aa8467_1194x880.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QT1Y!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5b1b62e-74f0-4fcd-9524-d09805aa8467_1194x880.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!QT1Y!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe5b1b62e-74f0-4fcd-9524-d09805aa8467_1194x880.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Trust depends on visible service at the local level. A household that pays a private generator is not proving that Iraqis will not pay for electricity. It shows the opposite: many households already pay for backup supply when the public grid is unreliable. The problem is that this payment goes to a costly and polluting parallel system rather than to a public electricity system capable of reinvesting revenue into better service.</p><h4>2.2 Capacity and utilisation </h4><p>Iraq&#8217;s capacity gap is not only a shortage of installed megawatts. It is also a utilisation problem, see figure below. The 2024 Ministry data show that gas plants dominate the operational fleet, but their average output is only about half of operational design capacity due to different reasons such as short (chronic) gas supply from Iran and the non-utilisation of flared gas. Steam plants are smaller but, on average, somewhat more utilised. Hydro and diesel are marginal in system terms. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VQAR!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F794c460c-cdb1-4961-9718-90cbcc83eba5_1149x527.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VQAR!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F794c460c-cdb1-4961-9718-90cbcc83eba5_1149x527.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VQAR!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F794c460c-cdb1-4961-9718-90cbcc83eba5_1149x527.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VQAR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F794c460c-cdb1-4961-9718-90cbcc83eba5_1149x527.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VQAR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F794c460c-cdb1-4961-9718-90cbcc83eba5_1149x527.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VQAR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F794c460c-cdb1-4961-9718-90cbcc83eba5_1149x527.png" width="1149" height="527" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/794c460c-cdb1-4961-9718-90cbcc83eba5_1149x527.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:527,&quot;width&quot;:1149,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:58458,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/197836252?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F2e1329c4-f096-4970-a34a-0610f7f9d50b_1500x720.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VQAR!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F794c460c-cdb1-4961-9718-90cbcc83eba5_1149x527.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VQAR!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F794c460c-cdb1-4961-9718-90cbcc83eba5_1149x527.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VQAR!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F794c460c-cdb1-4961-9718-90cbcc83eba5_1149x527.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!VQAR!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F794c460c-cdb1-4961-9718-90cbcc83eba5_1149x527.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>At plant level , the pattern is more interesting (see below figure). Some investment gas assets appear to perform better than much of the public gas fleet. That does not prove that private ownership alone explains performance. These plants are often newer, structured around long-term contracts, and in some cases built as combined-cycle assets with commercial incentives to remain available. Bismayah, for example, is described as a major combined-cycle project supplying Iraq&#8217;s Ministry of Electricity under a long-term power purchase agreement. These arrangements do not remove fuel and grid constraints, but they change incentives around availability, maintenance, and dispatch.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1bZr!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffe95bf94-e0a5-4e21-8bc0-7ed7048eefeb_1503x1148.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1bZr!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffe95bf94-e0a5-4e21-8bc0-7ed7048eefeb_1503x1148.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1bZr!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffe95bf94-e0a5-4e21-8bc0-7ed7048eefeb_1503x1148.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1bZr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffe95bf94-e0a5-4e21-8bc0-7ed7048eefeb_1503x1148.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1bZr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffe95bf94-e0a5-4e21-8bc0-7ed7048eefeb_1503x1148.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1bZr!,w_2400,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffe95bf94-e0a5-4e21-8bc0-7ed7048eefeb_1503x1148.png" width="1200" height="916.5668662674651" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/fe95bf94-e0a5-4e21-8bc0-7ed7048eefeb_1503x1148.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:false,&quot;imageSize&quot;:&quot;large&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:1148,&quot;width&quot;:1503,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:1200,&quot;bytes&quot;:263546,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/197836252?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa4d953b6-b0db-46fc-b711-5c17d70bd309_1650x1276.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:&quot;center&quot;,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-large" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1bZr!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffe95bf94-e0a5-4e21-8bc0-7ed7048eefeb_1503x1148.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1bZr!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffe95bf94-e0a5-4e21-8bc0-7ed7048eefeb_1503x1148.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1bZr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffe95bf94-e0a5-4e21-8bc0-7ed7048eefeb_1503x1148.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1bZr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffe95bf94-e0a5-4e21-8bc0-7ed7048eefeb_1503x1148.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>The near-term reform question is how much more output can be recovered from the fleet already connected to the system. That requires a plant-by-plant view: which units are fuel-constrained, which are maintenance-constrained, which are grid-constrained, which have contractual incentives to generate, and which should be rehabilitated or retired.</p><h4>2.3 Geography and fuel used</h4><p>Iraq&#8217;s generation map (<strong>interactive</strong> below!) show that many of the largest plants sit close to the places where electricity demand and economic activity are concentrated: Baghdad and its surrounding load centres, Basra and the southern oil economy, Nineveh and the north, and the middle Euphrates corridor. This matters because power systems are spatial systems. A plant is more useful when it is close to demand, fuel, transmission corridors, water, maintenance capability and industrial load. In that sense, Iraq&#8217;s problem is not simply that its plants are all in the wrong places.</p><p>The interactive plant map should therefore be read carefully. It shows a system with major assets near major cities and economic centres, but it also shows why geography alone cannot explain reliability. A power station near Baghdad is not reliable if it lacks gas, runs on substitute fuel, is derated, cannot evacuate power through constrained lines, or is unavailable during peak demand. The Iraqi grid still faces congestion around Baghdad and constraints between the middle and southern regions. </p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/ptPtn/1/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0eb48b99-882d-41f1-bb82-257997ba03b1_1220x1432.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/42449f76-2399-4fb0-9b3f-bbd864581e1c_1220x1502.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:741,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Iraq power plants&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/ptPtn/1/" width="730" height="741" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><p style="text-align: justify;">Fuel use by plant category is shown below. Gas plants are mostly using natural gas (77% of total generation in 2024), but the rest includes crude oil, heavy fuel oil, gas oil and fuel mix. Steam plants are dominated by crude oil and fuel mix. </p><p>A gas turbine designed to operate mainly on clean gas can often run on liquid fuels, but performance and maintenance are reduced while emissions increase. Liquid fuels can increase fouling, raise maintenance requirements, affect combustion performance and increase local pollution. Iraq may still produce electricity when gas is unavailable, but it often does so in a way that is more expensive, less efficient with increased maintenance. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tktF!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F68ff5fa4-c3d9-4c32-921b-25c405961823_1126x577.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tktF!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F68ff5fa4-c3d9-4c32-921b-25c405961823_1126x577.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tktF!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F68ff5fa4-c3d9-4c32-921b-25c405961823_1126x577.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tktF!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F68ff5fa4-c3d9-4c32-921b-25c405961823_1126x577.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tktF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F68ff5fa4-c3d9-4c32-921b-25c405961823_1126x577.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tktF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F68ff5fa4-c3d9-4c32-921b-25c405961823_1126x577.png" width="1126" height="577" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/68ff5fa4-c3d9-4c32-921b-25c405961823_1126x577.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:577,&quot;width&quot;:1126,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:51772,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/197836252?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fe225b870-868f-427c-8924-2b101784e697_1560x820.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tktF!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F68ff5fa4-c3d9-4c32-921b-25c405961823_1126x577.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tktF!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F68ff5fa4-c3d9-4c32-921b-25c405961823_1126x577.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tktF!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F68ff5fa4-c3d9-4c32-921b-25c405961823_1126x577.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!tktF!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F68ff5fa4-c3d9-4c32-921b-25c405961823_1126x577.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p style="text-align: justify;">The implication for reform is practical. Iraq should not only ask where to build new plants. It should ask which existing plants are in the right locations but are fuel-constrained, which plants are burning the wrong fuel, which plants are wearing down because of fuel substitution, and which fuel investments would unlock the most generation from assets already connected to the grid. In a system like Iraq&#8217;s, the shortest path to better supply may not be a new power station. It may be a gas-processing plant, a pipeline, a fuel-quality upgrade, a maintenance programme, or a transmission reinforcement that allows an existing plant to run as intended.</p><h4>2.4 Tariffs and subsidies </h4><p>Iraq&#8217;s electricity crisis is also a payment crisis, but not in the narrow sense that consumers simply refuse to pay. The deeper problem is that the government-owned grid, the household bill, the government budget and the private generator economy all price electricity differently. The figure below shows the formal tariff schedule: residential consumption starts at less than 1 US cent/kWh for the first electricity block and rises to about 9.2 cents/kWh for the highest block, while commercial and government tariffs reach similar upper levels. These are not trivial differences, but the schedule still sits inside a sector where the official tariff, actual collection, fuel allocation and public finance do not add up to a self-sustaining electricity service.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3q1u!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7cf583a-b138-4baa-9e5a-2dfbe6909a12_1399x893.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3q1u!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7cf583a-b138-4baa-9e5a-2dfbe6909a12_1399x893.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3q1u!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7cf583a-b138-4baa-9e5a-2dfbe6909a12_1399x893.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3q1u!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7cf583a-b138-4baa-9e5a-2dfbe6909a12_1399x893.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3q1u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7cf583a-b138-4baa-9e5a-2dfbe6909a12_1399x893.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3q1u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7cf583a-b138-4baa-9e5a-2dfbe6909a12_1399x893.png" width="1399" height="893" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/f7cf583a-b138-4baa-9e5a-2dfbe6909a12_1399x893.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:893,&quot;width&quot;:1399,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:100515,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/197836252?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4a76020a-9e74-4a49-84ae-55bd0ed5bb55_1600x980.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3q1u!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7cf583a-b138-4baa-9e5a-2dfbe6909a12_1399x893.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3q1u!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7cf583a-b138-4baa-9e5a-2dfbe6909a12_1399x893.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3q1u!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7cf583a-b138-4baa-9e5a-2dfbe6909a12_1399x893.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!3q1u!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff7cf583a-b138-4baa-9e5a-2dfbe6909a12_1399x893.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>The figure below puts the residential tariff into sharper perspective: the simple average of Iraq&#8217;s residential bands is about 4.7 US cents/kWh, while the cost-reflective grid benchmark is around 9.3 cents/kWh, meaning the household tariff would need to roughly double before it approached the operating cost of reliable grid electricity under subsidised-fuel assumptions. Even this is conservative, because it does not fully capture the investment backlog from years of under-maintenance, weak networks and emergency procurement. The more revealing comparison is with private generators: Iraqis often pay around 40 cents/kWh for neighbourhood supply, far above both a cost-reflective grid tariff and IRENA&#8217;s firm solar-plus-storage benchmark for high-resource Gulf conditions. The problem is not that Iraqis never pay for electricity; it is that the system channels too much payment into an expensive, polluting and informal backup economy while the public grid remains financially weak.</p><p>The pricing gap is also a fiscal problem. Fuel subsidies alone are on the order of about $8 billion per year, while uncollected billed revenue, is roughly estimated $0.9-1.1 billion per year. On top of that, the sector still requires other government finance or debt-like support to bridge the gap between what electricity service costs and what the tariff-and-collection system actually recovers. These are not identical accounting categories, but together they show the same structural weakness: Iraq is paying heavily for electricity through the budget, through unpaid bills, and through private generators, yet the public system still lacks the stable revenue base needed to maintain assets, reduce losses and invest in better service.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0Wbk!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa09bdd2f-58b9-44ce-b949-b5b7d713d208_1619x915.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0Wbk!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa09bdd2f-58b9-44ce-b949-b5b7d713d208_1619x915.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0Wbk!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa09bdd2f-58b9-44ce-b949-b5b7d713d208_1619x915.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0Wbk!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa09bdd2f-58b9-44ce-b949-b5b7d713d208_1619x915.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0Wbk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa09bdd2f-58b9-44ce-b949-b5b7d713d208_1619x915.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0Wbk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa09bdd2f-58b9-44ce-b949-b5b7d713d208_1619x915.png" width="1456" height="823" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a09bdd2f-58b9-44ce-b949-b5b7d713d208_1619x915.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:823,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:133573,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/197836252?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fd07abbad-25cc-4939-924d-5783fb0594a4_1800x1020.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0Wbk!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa09bdd2f-58b9-44ce-b949-b5b7d713d208_1619x915.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0Wbk!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa09bdd2f-58b9-44ce-b949-b5b7d713d208_1619x915.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0Wbk!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa09bdd2f-58b9-44ce-b949-b5b7d713d208_1619x915.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0Wbk!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fa09bdd2f-58b9-44ce-b949-b5b7d713d208_1619x915.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>This is why tariff reform in Iraq cannot be reduced to &#8220;raise prices&#8221;. A tariff increase without better service would be politically fragile and economically unfair. But service improvement without revenue reform is financially fragile. Weak cost recovery undermines the sector&#8217;s ability to maintain plants, upgrade networks, pay for fuel properly, and finance new investment. Moreover, deeply subsidised tariffs and distorted energy prices weaken the investment case for renewable energy, discourage efficiency, and make it harder to attract private capital into a credible clean-power pipeline.</p><p>If firm renewable electricity in high-resource regions is now approaching the cost range of cost-reflective grid (if not lower, see above), then Iraq&#8217;s fiscal burden is not only a tariff problem. It is also a <strong>system-design problem</strong>. A grid that remains dependent on liquid fuels, emergency imports, high losses and private diesel generators will keep converting public money into unreliable service. A better system would use tariff reform, targeted protection for poorer consumers, lower losses, bankable procurement, renewable generation, storage, and grid investment as parts of the same reform package.</p><h4>2.5 Institutions and market structure </h4><p>Iraq&#8217;s electricity sector is often described as <strong>state-owned and vertically integrated</strong>, but that description is too broad to explain why the system performs so poorly. A vertically integrated utility means that generation, transmission, distribution and retail are largely organised within one dominant public structure. This model is not automatically dysfunctional. Many electricity systems began this way, and some regulated monopoly systems still work reasonably well where the utility is financially disciplined, technically competent and subject to serious external oversight. In parts of the United States, for example, vertically integrated utilities continue to operate under public utility commissions that approve investment, review revenue requirements and regulate retail tariffs. The problem is therefore not public ownership by itself, or even vertical integration by itself. The problem is a vertically integrated system <strong>without enough internal discipline or external accountability with a fragmented political stability. </strong></p><p>The figure below makes that distinction visible. In the World Bank 2020 report, Iraq is not the only vertically integrated state utility; Burkina Faso and Tajikistan also appear in that category. Yet <strong>Iraq&#8217;s non-technical losses are far higher</strong>. The database records Iraq at around 59% non-technical losses, compared with 14% in Burkina Faso and 8% in Tajikistan. This is a severe institutional signal as non-technical losses are not mainly about physics. They reflect metering gaps, theft, weak billing, political non-payment, poor enforcement, and the absence of a credible commercial boundary between the public grid and the consumer. In other words, Iraq&#8217;s market structure is not just centralised; it is commercially porous.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Olr!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b411253-0b29-4c4a-a350-d16a8073698d_1824x1127.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Olr!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b411253-0b29-4c4a-a350-d16a8073698d_1824x1127.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Olr!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b411253-0b29-4c4a-a350-d16a8073698d_1824x1127.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Olr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b411253-0b29-4c4a-a350-d16a8073698d_1824x1127.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Olr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b411253-0b29-4c4a-a350-d16a8073698d_1824x1127.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Olr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b411253-0b29-4c4a-a350-d16a8073698d_1824x1127.png" width="1456" height="900" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1b411253-0b29-4c4a-a350-d16a8073698d_1824x1127.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:900,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:192356,&quot;alt&quot;:&quot;&quot;,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:&quot;image/png&quot;,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/i/197836252?img=https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbc3eaa88-0487-4889-b6a6-e34d9fccaa03_1950x1220.png&quot;,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" title="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Olr!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b411253-0b29-4c4a-a350-d16a8073698d_1824x1127.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Olr!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b411253-0b29-4c4a-a350-d16a8073698d_1824x1127.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Olr!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b411253-0b29-4c4a-a350-d16a8073698d_1824x1127.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!6Olr!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1b411253-0b29-4c4a-a350-d16a8073698d_1824x1127.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>The comparison with single-buyer and wholesale systems should also be useful. Egypt and Jordan are not liberalised retail markets, yet they have clearer single-buyer structures. Turkey and Mexico have wholesale power exchanges and balancing or ancillary-service arrangements. The Philippines and Colombia have moved further toward partial retail competition. These differences matter, but they should not be treated as a ladder that Iraq can simply climb by decree. A day-ahead market, a balancing market or retail competition only works when the basic functions are already credible: metering, dispatch, settlement, payment discipline, network regulation, enforceable contracts and transparent accounts. Without those, market terminology becomes cosmetic.</p><p>Iraq already has private or investment generation with investment gas plants accounts for roughly one-third of total electricity generated in 2024. But private generation alone does not create a functioning electricity market. If the public buyer is financially weak, if grid losses remain enormous, if dispatch is constrained by fuel and network bottlenecks, and if consumers do not trust the service enough to pay reliably, private projects sit inside a failing system rather than transforming it. This is why adding IPPs, imports or renewables without fixing the institutional layer can increase complexity without solving reliability.</p><p>Moreover, Iraq&#8217;s vertically integrated, state-dominated and heavily centralised structure is <strong>poorly suited</strong> to efficient integration of distributed and variable renewable energy. Developing countries have not all succeeded by copying textbook liberalisation. Reform works when it fits the country&#8217;s political and institutional conditions, and when it is driven by outcomes rather than ideology.</p><h3>3. Reform</h3><p><strong>Start where the return is highest</strong></p><p>Iraq&#8217;s electricity reform should begin with a simple rule: <strong>doing actions that maximises benefits and minimises political and economic risks</strong>. This is not a call for small reform. It is a sequencing principle. Iraq already has fuel resources, power plants, transmission assets, distribution networks, tariffs, public budgets, private generators, households buying backup systems, and investors willing to build if payment risk is controlled. The reform problem is that too much value leaks out before it becomes reliable electricity. Some gas is flared or unavailable to plants. Plants run below their useful capability. Electricity is lost in networks or disappears commercially. Bills are not fully collected. Public subsidies do not translate into dependable service. Households then pay again for private diesel generation or solar-and-battery backup.</p><p>The table below summarises the reform principles for Iraq electricity system based on the overarching principle: &#8220;<strong>doing actions that maximises benefits and minimises political and economic risks&#8221;</strong></p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/h0qRQ/1/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/21c2cf93-419a-429f-8427-0c6e4340c5a3_1220x1646.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/bdd7ef5b-e3a4-4331-8942-208fbe2253e0_1220x1716.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:921,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Reform principles for Iraq electricity system&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/h0qRQ/1/" width="730" height="921" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><p><strong>3.1 Maximise resource and energy efficiency</strong></p><p>The first reform priority is to stop wasting energy before it even reaches the consumer. In Iraq this begins with gas, but it does not end there. Capturing flared gas, processing it, moving it to the right plants, and displacing crude oil, heavy fuel oil and gas oil in power generation would improve reliability, reduce emissions and lower operating costs. This is not &#8220;free&#8221;, because gas capture and processing require investment, contracts and execution discipline. But it is a high-return reform because Iraq is already producing the associated gas and already suffering the cost of not using it well. A gas turbine forced to burn the wrong fuel may still generate electricity, but it does so with lower efficiency, higher maintenance stress and worse emissions.</p><p>I know that capturing all flared gas would not make Iraq self-sufficient for electricity generation. But we need also to remember that we, as Iraqis, do not care from where gas is received as long as it is <strong>cheapest</strong> to us. So we don&#8217;t care about importing from Iran, other countries or flared-gas captured. However, the argument is how to calculate that &#8216;cheapest&#8217;. Once you dig deeper, you find out that &#8216;<strong>cheaper</strong>&#8217; will be decided based on the &#8216;social cost&#8217; of valuing the lost load (known as VOLL), and if that is priced high, and can be compared to the rate of private generators, then getting imported gas and investing in capturing all flared gas will make economic sense. </p><p>The same efficiency principle applies to existing generation assets. Iraq should not treat every missing megawatt as proof that a new plant is needed. Some plants need fuel. Some need maintenance. Some need cooling improvements. Some should eventually be retired. Indeed, very large long-term savings come from overdue maintenance of the generation fleet, which is another way of saying that Iraq can recover useful capacity from assets already built. This is politically less difficult than tariff reform because citizens can understand the bargain: use national fuel better, repair what exists, and reduce the need for emergency procurement.</p><p><strong>3.2 Meter the system before reforming prices</strong></p><p>Iraq cannot reform what it cannot measure. Before a serious national tariff reform, the state needs to know which electricity is delivered, which is billed, which is collected, and where losses occur. This is why metering is not a minor retail detail. It is the boundary between public subsidy and commercial service. Without credible meters and customer records, the system cannot distinguish technical loss from theft, a poor household from a politically protected non-payer, or weak service from weak collection.</p><p><strong>Smart meters</strong> should therefore be rolled out as part of a feeder-by-feeder reform programme, not as a decorative technology project. The priority should be high-loss, high-consumption and high-value areas first: large commercial users, public institutions, industrial loads, dense urban feeders and places where service improvement can be made visible quickly. Smart meters should be linked to electronic billing, payment options, tamper detection, feeder monitoring and clear rules for disconnection or load limitation. <strong>Law enforcement matters</strong>, but it becomes more legitimate when the measurement system is fair and the service standard is visible.</p><p><strong>3.3 Sell reliable service, not promises</strong></p><p>The political economy of electricity reform in Iraq begins with <strong>trust</strong>. Citizens are already paying for electricity, but much of that payment goes outside the public system to private diesel generators. They pay because the alternative is uncertainty. A reform strategy that raises tariffs before changing service quality will look like the state charging more for failure. A reform strategy that offers longer hours, stable voltage, fair metering and a lower total household electricity cost can change the politics.</p><p>This is why service zones matter. Iraq should pilot areas where the public grid becomes the main source of reliable supply and where private generator dependence is visibly reduced. <strong>The KRG&#8217;s Runaki</strong> project is important less as a perfect model than as a political signal: people can accept metering and a new tariff structure when the offer is 24-hour electricity and a lower combined cost than grid-plus-generator payments. Federal Iraq needs its own version of that bargain. The reform promise should not be abstract &#8220;cost recovery&#8221;; it should be better service for less total household pain.</p><p><strong>3.4 Attack losses feeder By feeder</strong></p><p>The largest visible failure in the 2024 balance is not only generation. It is the collapse between total system energy and net energy sold. Distribution losses and internal use dominate the official flow, and that category combines technical, administrative and commercial problems. Treating it as one national number is analytically weak and operationally useless. Losses must be attacked feeder by feeder, because every feeder has a different mix of overloaded equipment, illegal connections, poor metering, weak billing, non-payment and political protection.</p><p>Technical losses require engineering investment: transformer upgrades, feeder balancing, better voltage management, reactive-power support, rehabilitation of substations, aerial bundled cables and targeted undergrounding where theft or safety risks justify it. Non-technical losses require commercial discipline: customer databases, meter replacement, inspections, penalties for tampering, enforceable payment rules and protection for vulnerable consumers. The benefit is immediate and system-wide. Every kilowatt-hour saved from loss is equivalent to new supply, but often cheaper, faster and less fuel-intensive than generating another kilowatt-hour upstream.</p><p><strong>3.5 Turn solar and storage into part of the system</strong></p><p>Household and business solar should not be treated as a side story. In Iraq, rooftop solar, batteries and hybrid systems are <strong>emerging</strong> because people are trying to solve reliability for themselves. The role of distributed renewable energy and storage and the Central Bank&#8217;s renewable-energy financing initiative (although less effective till now) already points in this direction. This is not a replacement for a national grid, but it can reduce pressure on the grid if governed properly.</p><p>The risk is fragmentation. If wealthier households and businesses use solar and batteries only to exit the public system, the grid is left with weaker revenue, poorer consumers and persistent losses. The better route is <strong>integration</strong>: technical standards, approved installers, financing for households and small businesses, net billing or controlled export rules, smart meters, and incentives for systems that reduce peak load rather than simply shifting private backup from diesel to batteries. Schools, clinics, farms, water-pumping stations, municipal buildings and commercial rooftops are obvious early targets. Solar and storage should become part of Iraq&#8217;s demand-side reform, not a private escape from public failure.</p><p><strong>3.6 Build independent institutions</strong></p><p>The electricity sector needs institutions that can <strong>discipline the system</strong>, not merely announce projects. <strong>An independent regulator</strong> is central because tariffs, service standards, losses, investment plans and consumer protection should not be controlled only by the same institutions being regulated. Independence does not mean hostility to government. It means that rules are enshrined in law, decisions are published, performance is measured, and all actors know the terms of the system.</p><p>This regulator should oversee revenue requirements, tariff methodology, service obligations, loss-reduction targets, grid codes, licensing and consumer protection. It should make subsidies explicit rather than hidden inside fuel allocation, unpaid bills or emergency budget support. Iraq also needs a clearer system-operator function. A full independent system operator may be a later institutional step, but the immediate need is a ring-fenced dispatch and grid-operations function with transparent data, fuel coordination, merit-order discipline where possible, and authority to manage reliability. Without this institutional layer, private investment, renewables, imports and new plants will continue to enter a weak system rather than transform it.</p><p><strong>3.7 Put whole-system thinkers in charge</strong></p><p>Electricity reform cannot be led only as a construction programme. Engineers are essential: Iraq needs competent engineers to maintain plants, operate grids, design substations, manage protection systems and integrate renewables. <strong>But the crisis is not only an engineering failure</strong>. It is <strong>a system failure</strong> across fuel, dispatch, finance, metering, tariffs, law, consumer behaviour and political accountability. </p><p><strong>The people responsible for reform need to understand how these layers interact.</strong></p><p>This is why Iraq needs whole-system thinkers in the centre of reform: planners, engineers, economists, regulators, system operators, data specialists, finance experts and consumer-policy people who can work across ministries and resist capture by any single contractor, profession or legacy interest. A plant built without fuel planning is not reform. A meter installed without billing reform is not reform. A tariff raised without service improvement is not reform. The purpose of whole-system leadership is to <strong>prevent partial fixes</strong> that look <strong>impressive in isolation</strong> but fail once they touch the rest of the electricity chain.</p><p>Iraq&#8217;s reform agenda should therefore begin with maximum-gain, lowest-resistance actions. Only then does deeper market reform become meaningful. The country does not need the language of a sophisticated electricity market before it has the foundations of a disciplined electricity system.</p><p>Dr. Ahmed Gailani </p><p>Data sources and references </p><ol><li><p><strong>Ministry of Electricity of Iraq, 2024 statistical tables</strong>: used for current electricity production, imports, investment energy, system balances, losses, load balance, tariffs, and plant-level indicators.</p></li><li><p><strong>World Bank, </strong><em><strong>Iraq&#8217;s Pathway to Reliable and Clean Power</strong></em><strong> (2022)</strong>: used for historical context, capacity and reliability analysis, fuel constraints, losses, tariff and subsidy context, sector financing needs, and reform sequencing.</p></li><li><p><strong>World Bank / IFC Power Markets Database and literature review</strong>: used for electricity-market structure concepts and international comparison of vertically integrated, single-buyer and wholesale electricity systems.</p></li><li><p><strong>IRENA, </strong><em><strong>Energy Transition Assessment: Iraq</strong></em><strong> (2025)</strong>: used for renewable energy, distributed solar, storage, grid modernisation, demand-side management, financing and institutional reform context.</p></li><li><p><strong>IRENA, </strong><em><strong>24/7 Renewables: The Economics of Firm Solar and Wind</strong></em><strong> (2026)</strong>: used for solar-plus-storage cost benchmarks and the role of firm renewable power in reliability planning.</p></li><li><p><strong>Electricity-market lecture and electricity-markets textbook sources</strong>: used for the conceptual foundations of electricity as a physical, operational, commercial, contractual and governance system.</p></li></ol>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Kurdistan and Iraq’s Climate Future: Acting Without a Seat at the Table]]></title><description><![CDATA[Dr. Ahmed Gailani]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/kurdistan-and-iraqs-climate-future</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/kurdistan-and-iraqs-climate-future</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 09 May 2026 17:59:53 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1yCh!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5be6aed6-0a61-4ce1-abf7-fd902d7acd9c_1086x1448.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1yCh!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5be6aed6-0a61-4ce1-abf7-fd902d7acd9c_1086x1448.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1yCh!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5be6aed6-0a61-4ce1-abf7-fd902d7acd9c_1086x1448.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1yCh!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5be6aed6-0a61-4ce1-abf7-fd902d7acd9c_1086x1448.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1yCh!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5be6aed6-0a61-4ce1-abf7-fd902d7acd9c_1086x1448.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!1yCh!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F5be6aed6-0a61-4ce1-abf7-fd902d7acd9c_1086x1448.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3>Summary</h3><p>The Paris Agreement is built around states. Iraq, not the Kurdistan Region, is the Party to the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement. That means Baghdad submits the NDC, represents Iraq in negotiations, authorises Article 6 carbon market activities, and controls the formal national channels to major climate funds.</p><p>But Iraq&#8217;s climate commitments cannot be delivered from Baghdad alone. Climate action happens in real places: water basins, farms, cities, forests, electricity systems and local institutions. The Kurdistan Region has its own climate risks, institutions and project opportunities, especially in adaptation, renewable energy, waste, land use and water management.</p><p>The issue is therefore not whether Kurdistan can act outside Iraq&#8217;s climate system. It cannot. The real question is how Kurdistan&#8217;s role can be made visible, measurable and useful inside Iraq&#8217;s national system.</p><p>For Erbil, this means building credible regional climate plans, quantifying mitigation actions, preparing bankable projects, and creating a clear registry of climate actions that can feed into Iraq&#8217;s NDC, Article 6 pipeline and climate finance programming.</p><p>For Baghdad, this means treating Kurdistan&#8217;s climate capacity as a national asset, not a political risk. Iraq needs clear procedures for regional input into NDC updates, Article 6 approvals, climate finance proposals and adaptation planning. It also needs transparent benefit-sharing rules so that regions hosting or preparing projects can see fair returns.</p><p>The practical answer is not a separate Kurdish climate diplomacy, and not a centralised system that makes regions invisible. It is one Iraqi climate commitment, with visible, measured and rules-based regional contributions inside it.</p><h3>1. The basic problem: Paris Agreement is built around states, but climate action happens inside territories</h3><p>When Iraq submits a climate pledge under the Paris Agreement, the document carries one name: the Republic of Iraq. Legally, this is normal. Under the Paris Agreement system, the formal rights and responsibilities belong to Parties, and Parties are states or regional economic integration organisations such as the European Union.</p><p>A region such as the Kurdistan Region of Iraq (KRI) cannot submit its own separate NDC. It cannot represent itself as a Party in UN climate negotiations. It cannot independently authorise internationally transferred mitigation outcomes under Article 6. It cannot bypass the national climate finance architecture and deal with major climate funds as if it were a state.</p><p>But this legal clarity hides a practical problem. Iraq is the Party, but Iraq is not a single uniform climate space. The climate risks, institutions and project opportunities in Basra, Baghdad, Anbar, Mosul, Erbil, Sulaimani and Duhok are not the same. A national NDC that ignores these differences may look clean on paper, but it will be weaker in implementation. This is the central tension for Kurdistan: it is inside Iraq&#8217;s climate pledge, but it does not own the pen.</p><h3>2. Where Kurdistan sits in the Paris Agreement system</h3><p>The UNFCCC and Paris Agreement do not treat regions as Parties. They treat them as part of the territory and governance system of a state. In Iraq&#8217;s case, this means the federal state carries the international rights and responsibilities.</p><p>At the same time, the Paris system does not ignore subnational action. The decision that adopted the Paris Agreement welcomed <strong>the efforts of non-Party stakeholders</strong>, including cities and other subnational authorities. The Paris Agreement itself also recognises that adaptation has local, subnational, national, regional and international dimensions, and that capacity-building should support action at national, subnational and local levels.</p><p>So Kurdistan has a recognised role, but not a sovereign one. It can contribute to Iraq&#8217;s NDC. It can implement adaptation and mitigation projects. It can build institutions, data systems and project pipelines. But the formal gateway remains Baghdad.</p><p>That is why calling Kurdistan simply a &#8220;non-state actor&#8221; can be misleading. Kurdistan is not a private company, NGO or city network. It is a public authority with institutions and territory. But in the UNFCCC system, it still sits outside the formal category of &#8220;Party&#8221;.</p><h3>3. Kurdistan is not absent from Iraq&#8217;s climate planning</h3><p>It would be wrong to say that Kurdistan has been excluded from Iraq&#8217;s climate architecture.</p><p>The Kurdistan Region has developed a Local Climate Change Adaptation Plan, supported by UNDP and the Kurdistan Environment Protection and Improvement Board. This plan identifies regional climate risks and adaptation priorities and links them to Iraq&#8217;s broader national adaptation and NDC processes.</p><p>Kurdistan has also developed a Locally Appropriate Mitigation Actions plan (LAMA), which focuses on mitigation opportunities at the regional level. Together, these plans show that Kurdistan is already being treated, at least technically, as a distinct climate governance space inside Iraq.</p><p>Iraq&#8217;s climate finance and investment planning has also included Kurdistan-related priorities and institutions. For example, the Green Climate Fund country programming process has considered projects and capacities linked to the Kurdistan Region.</p><p>The more accurate point, therefore, is not that Kurdistan is absent. It is that Kurdistan is often technically present but politically constrained. It may appear as geography, vulnerability, technical input and project space, but not necessarily as an empowered climate decision-maker.</p><h3>4. The real tension: visibility, authority and money</h3><p>Climate policy is no longer only about targets. It is increasingly about money, carbon markets, investment pipelines and access to international support.</p><p>This changes the political meaning of being included in a national climate document. If Kurdistan&#8217;s priorities are visible in Iraq&#8217;s NDC, climate finance country programme, Article 6 institutions and adaptation plans, then it has a stronger basis to attract finance and projects. If they are hidden, softened or merged into generic national language, Kurdistan may still contribute to implementation but have weaker leverage over resources.</p><p>This is where the politics becomes sensitive. The relationship between Baghdad and Erbil is already shaped by disputes over oil, revenue-sharing, budget transfers, territorial authority and constitutional powers. Climate finance and carbon markets could become another field where the same disputes reappear.</p><p>The risk is not only exclusion. The risk is uncertainty. A Kurdish ministry, municipality or public company may prepare a technically strong climate project, but still need federal endorsement, Article 6 authorisation or a climate fund no-objection letter. If the rules are unclear, climate projects can be delayed for political reasons that have little to do with emissions or adaptation.</p><h3>5. Lessons from other regions</h3><p>Kurdistan is not the only region operating in this <strong>grey zone</strong> between domestic authority and limited international standing.</p><p><strong>Qu&#233;bec and California</strong> built one of the best-known linked subnational carbon markets. Their experience shows that subnational governments can build technically sophisticated climate policy systems. But it also shows the limits of subnational climate diplomacy: these systems still sit inside national legal and accounting frameworks, and central governments can intervene when they believe foreign affairs or national authority is affected.</p><p><strong>The Basque</strong> Country offers another lesson. It has developed its own climate and energy transition law, aligned with wider European and Paris Agreement goals. This shows how an autonomous region can build serious climate institutions even when the formal international obligation runs through the state.</p><p><strong>Scotland</strong> shows a third lesson. Scotland has its own net-zero target and climate legislation, but many key powers remain reserved to the UK Government. Its experience shows that regional ambition can be higher than national ambition, but delivery still depends on central-state powers over energy, finance, infrastructure and international commitments.</p><p>The lesson for Kurdistan is clear. Regions can lead, plan and sometimes move faster than central governments. But where money, markets and international commitments are involved, coordination with the state remains unavoidable.</p><h3>6. What this means for NDCs: ownership without authorship</h3><p>For NDCs, Kurdistan&#8217;s position is simple but uncomfortable.</p><p>It cannot submit its own NDC. But Kurdistan can still shape the substance of Iraq&#8217;s NDC by preparing credible regional plans, quantified mitigation options, adaptation priorities and bankable project pipelines.</p><p>Technical quality matters here. A vague political demand for recognition is easier to ignore. A detailed regional plan with emissions estimates, costed projects, adaptation priorities, MRV arrangements and finance needs is harder to dismiss.</p><p>This is why the Kurdistan adaptation and mitigation plans are important. They are not separate international pledges, but they can become building blocks inside Iraq&#8217;s national pledge. The practical aim should be &#8220;contribution inside the contribution&#8221;: Kurdistan does not need a separate NDC to influence Iraq&#8217;s NDC, but it does need a clear regional climate package that Baghdad can include, reference or operationalise.</p><p>When political wording is sensitive, there are ways to manage it. The text can refer to the Kurdistan Region directly where possible. Where this is contested, it can still include specific northern governorates, mountain ecosystems, regional water systems, waste projects, renewable energy opportunities and adaptation needs. The name matters politically, but the substance matters operationally.</p><h3>7. The technical problem: invisible action is often uncounted action</h3><p>One important lesson from <a href="https://climateactiontransparency.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Non-State-and-Subnational-Action-Assessment-Guide.pdf">ICAT&#8217;s guide on non-state and subnational action</a> is that the problem is not only political visibility. It is also technical visibility.</p><p>Subnational action can help countries achieve national mitigation targets and even raise ambition, but only if it is identified, quantified and integrated into national greenhouse gas projections, targets and planning. The guide also notes that national governments may not fully consider the impact of mitigation actions by cities, regions, companies and other actors when developing national policies or implementing NDCs.</p><p>This matters directly for Kurdistan. If the Kurdistan Region develops renewable energy, methane reduction, waste, land-use or energy-efficiency projects, these actions will eventually affect Iraq&#8217;s national emissions inventory because they happen inside Iraq&#8217;s territory. But they may not be recognised as Kurdistan&#8217;s contribution unless they are measured and reported in a structured way.</p><p>This creates a practical lesson for Erbil: political recognition in the NDC is easier to demand when the regional contribution is technically clear.</p><p>A strong Kurdistan mitigation package should therefore include a list of existing and planned mitigation actions by sector, estimated emissions reductions, assumptions and baselines, data sources, project owners, implementation timelines, finance needs, and clarity on whether the reductions are intended for Iraq&#8217;s NDC, Article 6, voluntary carbon markets or domestic planning.</p><p><strong>It also creates a lesson for Baghdad</strong>. Excluding or under-counting Kurdistan&#8217;s action does not strengthen Iraq&#8217;s sovereignty. It weakens Iraq&#8217;s evidence base. Integrating regional action properly can improve national projections, reveal additional mitigation potential and make future NDCs more credible.</p><h3>8. What this means for Article 6 and carbon markets</h3><p>Article 6 is <strong>more sensitive</strong> because it deals with carbon credits, authorisation, corresponding adjustments and potential revenue.</p><p>For Kurdistan, the legal position is clear. The KRG cannot act as the host Party under Article 6. Kurdish entities can develop or host projects, but Iraq must approve the Article 6 framework, issue relevant authorisations and handle reporting.</p><p>The practical question is therefore not &#8220;Can Kurdistan do Article 6 alone?&#8221; It cannot. The real question is &#8220;Can Iraq design an Article 6 system that gives Kurdistan confidence that good projects will be assessed fairly?&#8221;</p><p>That requires clear eligibility criteria, transparent timelines, a role for KRG institutions in technical review where projects are located in the region, and benefit-sharing rules agreed before money starts flowing. Without this, Article 6 could become another arena for Baghdad&#8211;Erbil mistrust.</p><p>There is also a technical accounting risk. If a mitigation project in Kurdistan reduces emissions, several actors may want to claim the result: the project developer, the KRG, the federal government and possibly an international buyer. ICAT&#8217;s guide warns that overlap between national and subnational mitigation actions can lead to <strong>double counting,</strong> especially when multiple actors work toward the same goal or claim the same emissions reductions.</p><p>This is why Kurdistan&#8217;s Article 6 readiness should not only focus on finding projects. It should also focus on accounting rules: who owns the mitigation outcome, whether it counts toward Iraq&#8217;s NDC, whether a corresponding adjustment is required, and how benefits are shared between the project host, the region and the federal government.</p><p>Without this, carbon markets could create new disputes rather than new finance.</p><h3>9. What this means for climate finance</h3><p>Climate finance follows the same logic.</p><p>Major climate funds work through national systems. In the Green Climate Fund, for example, countries have National Designated Authorities or focal points that coordinate engagement and issue no-objection letters for projects. Subnational entities can in principle become direct access entities, but they still need to move through the country&#8217;s formal nomination and accreditation process.</p><p>This is important for Kurdistan. In theory, a Kurdish public institution could become a direct access entity. In practice, it would need federal nomination and the required accreditation standards. Without Baghdad&#8217;s cooperation, Kurdistan cannot simply create its own direct route to major climate funds.</p><p>The realistic strategy for Kurdistan is therefore to prepare before the political window opens. It should identify institutions that could eventually seek accreditation, improve fiduciary systems, strengthen environmental and social safeguards, build project preparation capacity, and align proposed projects with Iraq&#8217;s national climate priorities.</p><p>In other words, Kurdistan should not wait for perfect politics before building climate finance readiness.</p><h3>10. Why adaptation gives Kurdistan the strongest opening</h3><p>Adaptation is the area where Kurdistan has the strongest argument for visibility.</p><p>Unlike mitigation, where national accounting and carbon markets can become highly centralised, adaptation is naturally place-specific. Water scarcity, drought risk, floods, heat, forests, agriculture and ecosystem vulnerability vary by region. A national adaptation plan that does not understand local geography will fail.</p><p>The Kurdistan Local Adaptation Plan is therefore more than a planning document. It is a political and technical bridge. It shows that regional climate planning can support Iraq&#8217;s national obligations while also reflecting local realities. It gives donors and federal planners a concrete basis for projects in water harvesting, resilient agriculture, forests, ecosystems, local infrastructure and community resilience.</p><p>This is where Kurdistan can make its strongest case: not by arguing for a separate seat in the Paris Agreement, but by showing that Iraq&#8217;s climate resilience cannot be delivered from Baghdad alone.</p><h3>11. What should Kurdistan do?</h3><p>Kurdistan&#8217;s institutions should focus on five practical priorities.</p><p><strong>First</strong>, keep improving regional climate planning. The adaptation and mitigation plans should not be treated as one-off reports. They should become living documents with updated data, project pipelines, costs, emissions estimates and implementation responsibilities.</p><p><strong>Second,</strong> build a regional MRV system. If Kurdistan can measure emissions, adaptation needs, project impacts and finance flows more credibly, it gains leverage with Baghdad and donors.</p><p><strong>Third</strong>, create a Kurdistan climate action registry. This does not need to be an international registry or a rival to Iraq&#8217;s national system. It can begin as a technical database of regional mitigation actions, adaptation projects, project owners, locations, estimated impacts, finance needs and implementation status. Over time, such a registry would help KRI feed better evidence into Iraq&#8217;s NDC, climate finance programming, Article 6 pipeline and national reporting.</p><p><strong>Fourth</strong>, prepare Article 6-ready projects. Methane reduction, renewable energy, waste, land restoration and energy efficiency are possible areas, but they need screening for additionality, ownership, safeguards and alignment with Iraq&#8217;s NDC.</p><p><strong>Fifth</strong>, prepare institutions for future climate finance access. Even if federal nomination is needed, Kurdistan can start aligning candidate institutions with the standards expected by major climate funds.</p><h3>12. What should Baghdad do?</h3><p>Baghdad has a strong interest in making this work by supporting climate action. </p><p>If Kurdistan develops good projects, Iraq&#8217;s NDC becomes more credible. If Kurdistan attracts climate finance, Iraq benefits. If the Kurdistan Region reduces emissions or improves resilience, it contributes to national stability.</p><p>The federal government should therefore treat subnational climate action as <strong>an asset, not a threat.</strong></p><p>This requires formal coordination. Iraq should create clear procedures for how regional climate plans feed into NDC updates, climate finance programming, adaptation planning and Article 6 project approval. KRG institutions should have defined roles in technical committees where projects relate to sectors or territories under their authority.</p><p>Baghdad should also create a clear process for integrating regional mitigation data into national projections and inventories. This would reduce uncertainty, avoid double counting and make Iraq&#8217;s climate reporting more credible.</p><p>Finally, <strong>Baghdad should agree benefit-sharing rules</strong> before carbon market revenues become politically sensitive. If a region hosts a project, bears implementation costs or provides institutional support, it should understand how benefits will be shared.</p><p>The aim should not be to internationalise Iraq&#8217;s internal disputes. The aim should be to prevent those disputes from weakening Iraq&#8217;s climate delivery.</p><h3>13. What should international partners do?</h3><p>International partners often speak to &#8220;Iraq&#8221; as if it were a single implementation unit. That is understandable diplomatically, but it can be weak operationally.</p><p>Donors, UN agencies and climate funds should support Iraq&#8217;s sovereignty while also insisting on inclusive implementation. That means asking whether Kurdistan and other regions were meaningfully involved in NDC updates, climate finance programming, Article 6 readiness and adaptation planning.</p><p>They should also fund subnational capacity. Project preparation, emissions data, vulnerability assessments, safeguards systems and MRV are not glamorous, but they determine whether regions can turn climate plans into financeable projects.</p><p>A good climate project in Kurdistan should not be blocked because the institutional bridge between Erbil and Baghdad is weak. International partners can help build that bridge without challenging Iraq&#8217;s formal role as the Party.</p><p><strong>Dr. Ahmed Gailani</strong></p><p>https://x.com/agailani90</p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Is Climate Change Really Why Iraq Gets Less Water? An Evidence-Based Test]]></title><description><![CDATA[Executive summary]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/is-climate-change-really-why-iraq</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/is-climate-change-really-why-iraq</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 21 Feb 2026 15:32:58 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!avwG!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F69ee6f51-6e82-4322-bc04-10bbb29d52b2_1408x736.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<h1>Executive summary</h1><p>Iraq and T&#252;rkiye share a connected river system where upstream decisions and downstream vulnerability collide. A common diplomatic claim is that climate change in T&#252;rkiye is the main reason Iraq receives less water. This article tests that claim against three evidence-based hypotheses: (1) climate impacts translate into <strong>greater water insecurity in Iraq</strong> than T&#252;rkiye; (2) <strong>non-climate demand growth in T&#252;rkiye</strong>, especially irrigation expansion, reduces the volume reaching Iraq; and (3) T&#252;rkiye&#8217;s <strong>energy transition and climate policies</strong> can improve its energy security and reduce some water-intensive generation, but also interact with hydropower and dams in ways that reshape flows.</p><p>The analysis shows a clear pattern: climate change is increasing drought and aridity risks across the region, but <strong>water stress is not only a climate story</strong>. It is also a demand, infrastructure, and governance story. Iraq&#8217;s downstream dependence, hotter baseline conditions, and weaker coping capacity mean that the same hydroclimatic shock often produces <strong>larger system damage in Iraq</strong>. Meanwhile, upstream withdrawals and reservoir operations can magnify shortages in drought years.</p><p><strong>Bottom line:</strong> Climate change matters&#8212;but attributing reduced downstream flows to climate alone is analytically weak. Better transparency, joint water accounting, demand management, and drought-era operating rules are the practical levers to reduce risk.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!avwG!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F69ee6f51-6e82-4322-bc04-10bbb29d52b2_1408x736.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!avwG!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F69ee6f51-6e82-4322-bc04-10bbb29d52b2_1408x736.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!avwG!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F69ee6f51-6e82-4322-bc04-10bbb29d52b2_1408x736.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!avwG!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F69ee6f51-6e82-4322-bc04-10bbb29d52b2_1408x736.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!avwG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F69ee6f51-6e82-4322-bc04-10bbb29d52b2_1408x736.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!avwG!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F69ee6f51-6e82-4322-bc04-10bbb29d52b2_1408x736.png" width="1408" height="736" 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h1>Introduction</h1><p>Iraq and Turkey share a tightly coupled hydrological system whose geopolitical sensitivity has increased as climate change intensifies aridity, heat extremes, and drought risk across the Mediterranean and adjacent regions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-1" href="#footnote-1" target="_self">1</a> assesses with high confidence that parts of the Mediterranean have experienced drying driven by increased evaporative demand and some precipitation decreases, and that drought severity has increased with anthropogenic climate change. These physical trends intersect with rising demand, infrastructure expansion, and contested governance.</p><p>For water resources, the key interaction is that Turkey sits upstream of major tributary headwaters, while Iraq is heavily dependent on inflows from outside its territory. Contemporary reporting and policy discussions<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-2" href="#footnote-2" target="_self">2</a> repeatedly note Iraq&#8217;s reliance on external upstream sources for a large share of its surface water supply, a dependence that magnifies vulnerability during drought and during upstream impoundment/withdrawal episodes.</p><p>A recurring claim in Iraq&#8211;Turkey water diplomacy - evidenced by the recent speech of Turkey ambassador to Iraq<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-3" href="#footnote-3" target="_self">3</a>) - is that <em><strong>climate change in Turkey</strong></em><strong> is the main reason Iraq receives less water</strong> from the Euphrates and Tigris. This article, therefore, evaluates this claim against three hypotheses based on the latest research and evidence analysis. These hyptheses are:</p><p><strong>Hypothesis 1</strong>: Climate change impacts Iraq more than Turkey (with emphasis on water scarcity and water-system outcomes, not only meteorological metrics).</p><p><strong>Hypothesis 2</strong>: Increased water consumption in Turkey due to non-climate factors (GDP growth, populationincrease, social factors such as education/literacy and consumption patterns) reduces the volume of water reaching Iraq.</p><p><strong>Hypothesis 3</strong>: Climate policies have benefited Turkey (e.g., enabling renewables/hydro vs fossil-fuelspathways), altering water&#8211;energy dynamics in ways that improve Turkey&#8217;s relative water-energy security.</p><p>A central methodological point is that these hypotheses are not mutually exclusive: climate-driven supply shifts, demand-driven withdrawals, infrastructure operations, and diplomacy can all act simultaneously. The practical question is <em>which drivers</em> explain the largest share of observed downstream water stress and whether policy levers exist to reduce risk.</p><h1><strong>Evidence &amp; analysis</strong></h1><h3><strong>Comparative Climate-Risk Rankings and Water-Risk Indicators (Iraq vs Turkey)</strong></h3><p>Rankings cannot prove intent (e.g., deliberate withholding) and they do not replace basin-scale hydrology. But they are useful for testing a narrower claim: whether Iraq is generally assessed as facing greater climate-related vulnerability and lower adaptive readiness than Turkey. If multiple independent indices place Iraq consistently in a worse position, then a narrative that frames Turkey as the &#8220;more climate-affected party&#8221; should be treated as <strong>incomplete at best, and strategically selective at worst</strong>.</p><ol><li><p><strong>The Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative (ND-GAIN) Country Index:</strong></p></li></ol><p>The ND-GAIN Country Index<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-4" href="#footnote-4" target="_self">4</a> combines two dimensions: Vulnerability (exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity in six sectors) and Readiness (economic, governance and social readiness to leverage investments for adaptation). Higher index scores and readiness are better; lower vulnerability is better. The key point for this paper is not a single number, but the direction of the gap: <strong>Iraq scores substantially worse than Turkey on overall rank, readiness, and several water-related components</strong>.</p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/O22MG/1/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/67254d41-4fb0-446d-9b74-e8c47add6034_1220x1024.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/d7727ddd-5796-4c93-b77a-f3c66a6737e2_1220x1094.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:549,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;ND-GAIN comparison between Iraq and Turkey&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/O22MG/1/" width="730" height="549" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><p><strong>Critical reading:</strong> The ND-GAIN result does not mean Turkey has no climate-water problems; it says Turkey has stronger adaptation readiness and (on this composite) lower vulnerability. This matters because the Turkey-to-Iraq &#8220;less water due to climate&#8221; narrative quietly assumes that climate pressure is a one-way upstream-to-downstream story. ND-GAIN suggests the opposite: the downstream state (Iraq) sits in a much weaker position to absorb shocks and manage scarcity.</p><ol start="2"><li><p><strong>Aqueduct (WRI): projected national water stress in 2040</strong></p></li></ol><p>Water stress rankings do not attribute causality to climate alone. Aqueduct&#8217;s<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-5" href="#footnote-5" target="_self">5</a> &#8220;business-as-usual&#8221; projection blends water supply and demand dynamics under socio-economic and climate assumptions. It therefore helps test Hypothesis (2) in our demand-side drivers and management choices can create water stress even where climate change is not the only force at work.</p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/N7bYQ/1/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a06ea5a7-8682-47ab-b7e1-0c15af69cc29_1220x444.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/9f4769c0-4d95-4490-bae4-92e59f4b8644_1220x514.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:252,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Aqueduct (WRI) comparison for Iraq and Turkey&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/N7bYQ/1/" width="730" height="252" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><p><strong>Critical reading</strong>: Aqueduct&#8217;s projection puts both Iraq and Turkey among the most water-stressed countries by 2040. But the ranking does not support the idea that Turkey is uniquely &#8220;squeezed&#8221; relative to Iraq; <strong>Iraq is ranked as more stressed.</strong> More importantly, Aqueduct&#8217;s logic is a warning for political narratives: water stress is not only a climate story, it is also a demand, governance and allocation story. That is exactly why attributing reduced downstream flow to climate alone is analytically weak.</p><ol start="3"><li><p> <strong>INFORM Risk (2023): hazards + vulnerability + coping capacity</strong></p></li></ol><p>INFORM<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-6" href="#footnote-6" target="_self">6</a> is not a climate index per se; it is a humanitarian risk framework combining hazard &amp; exposure, vulnerability, and lack of coping capacity. Nevertheless, it is useful here because it makes explicit what many political statements hide: risk is the product of hazards and the capacity to cope. In this framing, &#8220;beingimpacted&#8221; is not just about having a drought; it is about whether institutions, infrastructure and social systems can absorb it</p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/PkPiQ/1/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a1337cf2-1eda-4bc3-8d0e-728dead93d32_1220x1148.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/616392e3-3de1-4dda-8d33-ad551649178f_1220x1218.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:235,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;INFORM Risk (2023) comparison for Iraq and Turkey&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/PkPiQ/1/" width="730" height="235" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><p>Critical reading: using INFORM Risk 2025, Iraq and T&#252;rkiye are both classified as &#8220;High&#8221; risk, but Iraq ranks higher overall (5.7; rank 27) than T&#252;rkiye (5.2; rank 36). The water-relevant hazard components show a much stronger asymmetry: Iraq&#8217;s drought (7.5) and river flood exposure (9.6) materially exceed T&#252;rkiye&#8217;s (2.6 and 6.0, respectively), while Iraq also exhibits higher vulnerability and weaker coping capacity, consistent with downstream amplification of hydroclimatic shocks.</p><h3>Observed climate hazards and hydroclimatic change</h3><p>The regional climate context is characterized by rising temperatures, increasing evaporative demand, and atendency toward drying and more severe drought conditions across the Mediterranean region, includingthe Eastern Mediterranean, where the Tigris&#8211;Euphrates headwaters and adjacent areas are climatically linked. The IPCC&#8217;s Mediterranean cross-chapter assessment attributes observed drying in recent decades to widespread increases in evaporative demand and some decrease in precipitation (high confidence), and reports medium-to-high confidence that anthropogenic climate change has increased drought severity in the Mediterranean.</p><p>For water resources, this translates into several physically grounded expectations that matter differently for Turkey and Iraq:</p><p>Warming increases potential evapotranspiration (atmospheric moisture demand), raising irrigation requirements and reducing effective soil moisture and runoff efficiency, even if precipitation is unchanged.</p><p>Headwater snowpack dynamics matter for Turkey&#8217;s upstream contribution: warming shifts precipitation from snow to rain and moves melt earlier, reducing late-spring/summer runoff that is most valuable for downstream irrigation and hydropower. Peer-reviewed basin studies<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-7" href="#footnote-7" target="_self">7</a> for the Euphrates&#8211;Tigris headwaters report projected reductions in precipitation and runoff and increases in temperature, with implications for future discharge regimes.</p><p>Downstream amplification in Iraq is driven by hotter baseline conditions, high evaporative losses, and limited buffering capacity. Climate risk syntheses<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-8" href="#footnote-8" target="_self">8</a> for Iraq emphasize recurrent droughts, rising temperatures, and reduced precipitation as drivers of increasing water shortages.</p><p>A major differentiator is groundwater. A well-cited GRACE-based basin-scale assessment of the Tigris&#8211; Euphrates basin estimated a very large total water storage decline over the 2003&#8211;2009 period, with groundwater depletion contributing a substantial share of that loss. This indicates that when surface-water conditions tighten (from drought or upstream regulation), downstream users often compensate by pumping groundwater&#8212;an adaptation that can be rapidly destabilizing if recharge is insufficient<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-9" href="#footnote-9" target="_self">9</a>.</p><h3>Human water demand, infrastructure, and governance</h3><h4><strong>Water withdrawals by sector and trends</strong></h4><p>Across the region, agriculture dominates freshwater withdrawals. A regional efficiency review drawing on FAO AQUASTAT reports that Iraq, Syria, Iran, and Turkey withdraw large shares of total water for irrigated agriculture (reported in the ~74&#8211;91% range across these countries), illustrating that modest improvements in irrigation efficiency can unlock significant volumes relative to domestic and industrial use<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-10" href="#footnote-10" target="_self">10</a>.</p><p>Turkey&#8217;s irrigation expansion in the Southeast is material. A technical description of the large-scale development program states that it comprises numerous dams and hydropower plants and aims to irrigate on the order of ~1.6 million hectares, implying a large increase in consumptive use when irrigation is fully deployed.</p><p>Remote sensing-based evidence further supports major irrigation expansion and intensification in southeastern Turkey over recent decades. One Landsat time-series analysis reports a several-fold increase in irrigated dry-season cropping area between 1990 and 2018, consistent with rising upstream consumptive demand in the basin<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-11" href="#footnote-11" target="_self">11</a>.</p><p>For total withdrawals, the &#8220;Annual freshwater withdrawals&#8221; dataset compiled from AQUASTAT via the World Bank and processed by Our World in Data<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-12" href="#footnote-12" target="_self">12</a> provides a long-run record (1962&#8211;2022) but cautions that country comparisons are limited by intermittent collection and methodology differences; this matters because it limits how precisely one can attribute transboundary reductions to changes in one upstream sector.</p><h4><strong>Governance and treaty architecture</strong></h4><p>Formal, comprehensive basin-wide allocation remains limited; instead, the basin is governed through partial and interim arrangements and periodic technical committees. A detailed international-law review describes the interim nature of arrangements and notes, for example, the framework in which a minimum flow was set on the Euphrates to Syria, with an additional downstream share arrangement to Iraq<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-13" href="#footnote-13" target="_self">13</a>.</p><p>Recent diplomacy<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-14" href="#footnote-14" target="_self">14</a> has moved toward &#8220;package&#8221; cooperation linking water management with infrastructure investment and broader bilateral relations. Reporting from late 2025 describes an agreement on water infrastructure projects in Iraq implemented by Turkish companies and funded via oil revenues tied to exports to Turkey, indicating an explicit water&#8211;trade linkage in contemporary agreements and an attempt to address Iraq-side inefficiencies alongside upstream releases.</p><h3><strong>Testing the hypotheses and alternative explanations</strong></h3><p>The table below synthesizes policy-relevant indicators and explicitly tags each as (a) directionally strong, (b) limited quantitative coverage, or (c) missing public time series requiring original extraction. The reference base in the table are <a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-15" href="#footnote-15" target="_self">15</a><a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-16" href="#footnote-16" target="_self">16</a><a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-17" href="#footnote-17" target="_self">17</a></p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/hxcW2/3/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/e5c9a699-3240-4132-9db4-75ef9bb32d37_1220x3166.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4f4f64f5-234a-40c8-bda6-60d9d81dafab_1220x3166.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:1780,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;| Created with Datawrapper&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/hxcW2/3/" width="730" height="1780" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><h3><strong>Hypothesis-by-hypothesis evaluation</strong></h3><p><strong>Hypothesis 1: climate change impacts Iraq more than Turkey.</strong><br>In strictly meteorological terms, parts of Turkey (especially the headwaters region) face significant hydrological sensitivity because snowpack and runoff timing are climate-sensitive; nevertheless, the net <em>water-security</em> impact is larger in Iraq because shortages are amplified by dependence on inflows, high evaporative losses, and governance and infrastructure constraints. IPCC assessments of Mediterranean drying and increasing drought severity support the direction of increasing water stress; Iraq-focused climate risk syntheses and contemporary reporting emphasize acute drought and precipitation decline contributing to national water insecurity.</p><p>A key quantitative anchor is groundwater depletion: basin-scale total water storage declines with large groundwater losses indicate that adaptive pumping is already significant, often a sign of surface-water stress and shortage. In practical terms, this implies that Iraq&#8217;s &#8220;impact&#8221; is not only reduced surface water but accelerated depletion of strategic reserves.</p><p><strong>Net assessment:</strong> <strong>Supported</strong>, with the interpretation that &#8220;impact&#8221; is measured as water scarcity and system stress rather than upstream hydroclimate sensitivity alone.</p><p><strong>Hypothesis 2: non-climate demand increases in Turkey reduce water reaching Iraq.</strong><br>The mechanism is straightforward: increased upstream withdrawals (especially irrigation) reduce downstream flows; reservoir operations further reshape seasonal availability. Evidence for demand growth is strong in the &#8220;irrigation expansion and intensification&#8221; record: program-scale irrigation goals and remote sensing evidence of rapid expansion in irrigated dry-season cropping are consistent with increased consumptive use.</p><p>A regional Mediterranean assessment report notes that Turkey substantially increased water withdrawals over recent decades, attributing this to development and irrigation expansion (though such reports often draw on uneven national data and should be interpreted cautiously).</p><p>Evidence for downstream reduction includes reported sharp cross-border discharge decreases during key periods, although attribution between &#8220;new withdrawals,&#8221; &#8220;reservoir filling,&#8221; and &#8220;drought-driven low inflows&#8221; is not fully separable without operational data<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-18" href="#footnote-18" target="_self">18</a>.</p><p>Alternative explanations that partially compete with Hypothesis 2 include (i) climate-driven reduction in headwater runoff generation, (ii) increased evaporation from larger reservoir surface areas, and (iii) downstream inefficiency and losses in Iraq (leakage, salinity-driven unusability, and pollution concentration during low flows). These do not refute the hypothesis but complicate &#8220;how much&#8221; is due to Turkey&#8217;s non-climate demand growth.</p><p><strong>Net assessment:</strong> <strong>Supported</strong> with moderate&#8211;high confidence on direction; quantification requires original hydrological accounting.</p><p><strong>Hypothesis 3: Turkey&#8217;s climate policies benefited Turkey, altering water&#8211;energy dynamics.</strong><br>The relevant water&#8211;energy linkage is that electricity systems have different water intensities: fossil thermal generation typically requires cooling water, while wind and solar PV have low operational water use; hydropower depends on water availability but is not &#8220;consumptive&#8221; in the same way as irrigation (though it can drive reservoir evaporation and flow timing changes).</p><p>Turkey&#8217;s climate reporting<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-19" href="#footnote-19" target="_self">19</a> under the transparency framework&#8212;including its first Biennial Transparency Report submitted under the Paris system&#8212;documents policy and emissions context relevant to the energy transition. However, a key point here is that without climate change policies such as the Paris Agreement, renewables would not have fallen in cost, and such as this has helped Turkey to strengthed energy security over relying on imported fossil fuels and pumped hydro. Nevertheless, hydro power capacity in Turkey continued to increase<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-20" href="#footnote-20" target="_self">20</a>. </p><p>Energy mix evidence from the International Energy Agency<a class="footnote-anchor" data-component-name="FootnoteAnchorToDOM" id="footnote-anchor-21" href="#footnote-21" target="_self">21</a> and independent power-sector analysis indicate Turkey has expanded non-hydro renewables over time, which can reduce exposure to fossil fuel import dependence and reduce thermoelectric water demand relative to a counterfactual fossil-heavy trajectory.</p><p>However, an important counterpoint is that hydro power development and multi-purpose dams&#8212;often justified historically by development and energy security&#8212;expand operational control and can externalize risk downstream. IPCC Mediterranean assessments also discuss how climate change can constrain hydropower and freshwater-cooled thermoelectric production under warming, making energy planning itself more water-sensitive.</p><p><strong>Net assessment:</strong> <strong>Partly supported</strong>. Turkey&#8217;s energy transition plausibly improves its water&#8211;energy resilience in some respects (less thermal cooling demand, more diversified renewables), but hydro-centric strategies also increase exposure to drought and increase upstream control over flows that affect downstream users. Causality to &#8220;climate policy&#8221; specifically is mixed because major hydro/infrastructure decisions frequently predate recent climate-policy cycles. </p><h2><strong>Conclusion</strong></h2><p>The evidence supports a coherent narrative: climate change is increasing water scarcity risk across the broader Mediterranean/Eastern Mediterranean through rising evaporative demand and evolving precipitation patterns, while human development pathways&#8212;especially irrigation expansion and infrastructure operations&#8212;mediate how that scarcity is distributed across borders.</p><p><strong>Hypothesis 1</strong> is supported when &#8220;impact&#8221; is operationalized as <em>water insecurity and system stress</em>: Iraq&#8217;s downstream dependence, hotter baseline, and constrained governance and infrastructure create a higher sensitivity to both climate shocks and upstream operations. Groundwater depletion evidence indicates that adaptation in the basin is already drawing down strategic reserves, which is especially destabilizing for downstream systems.</p><p><strong>Hypothesis 2</strong> is supported in direction: Turkey&#8217;s non-climate demand growth&#8212;particularly agricultural expansion in the southeast&#8212;plausibly reduces downstream flow volumes and increases the likelihood that drought years translate into crisis years for Iraq. Even where climate is the primary driver of low inflows, increased upstream consumptive demand and reservoir evaporation can magnify downstream shortages.</p><p><strong>Hypothesis 3</strong> is partially supported: climate and energy policies and market shifts that expand wind/solar can reduce water intensity relative to fossil thermal generation, but hydro-centric strategies increase dependence on water availability and expand upstream operational control. The net &#8220;benefit&#8221; to Turkey is therefore conditional: it can improve energy security and reduce some water demands, yet it also increases the salience of drought risk and downstream externalities.</p><p><strong>Dr. Ahmed Gailani</strong></p><p>References</p><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-1" href="#footnote-anchor-1" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">1</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/chapter/ccp4/</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-2" href="#footnote-anchor-2" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">2</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iraq-turkey-sign-deal-iraqi-water-infrastructure-projects-2025-11-02/ </p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-3" href="#footnote-anchor-3" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">3</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.facebook.com/share/v/1DUbrmaUmU/?mibextid=wwXIfr </p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-4" href="#footnote-anchor-4" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">4</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://gain-new.crc.nd.edu/country/iraq and https://gain-new.crc.nd.edu/country/turkey</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-5" href="#footnote-anchor-5" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">5</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.wri.org/research/aqueduct-projected-water-stress-country-rankings</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-6" href="#footnote-anchor-6" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">6</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://drmkc.jrc.ec.europa.eu/inform-index/INFORM-Risk/Results-and-data</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-7" href="#footnote-anchor-7" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">7</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S221458182200088X</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-8" href="#footnote-anchor-8" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">8</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://weatheringrisk.org/sites/default/files/document/Climate_Risk_Profile_Iraq_8.pdf</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-9" href="#footnote-anchor-9" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">9</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/wrcr.20078</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-10" href="#footnote-anchor-10" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">10</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.suen.gov.tr/uploads/main-report_improving-agricultural-water-use-efficiency-in-the-middle-east.pdf</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-11" href="#footnote-anchor-11" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">11</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348288665_Landsat_time_series_reveal_simultaneous_expansion_and_intensification_of_irrigated_dry_season_cropping_in_Southeastern_Turkey</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-12" href="#footnote-anchor-12" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">12</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/annual-freshwater-withdrawals</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-13" href="#footnote-anchor-13" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">13</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.mpil.de/files/pdf4/mpunyb_07_Tiroch_16.pdf</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-14" href="#footnote-anchor-14" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">14</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/iraq-turkey-sign-deal-iraqi-water-infrastructure-projects-2025-11-02/</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-15" href="#footnote-anchor-15" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">15</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg2/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGII_CCP4_SM.pdf</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-16" href="#footnote-anchor-16" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">16</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.mfa.gov.tr/data/DISPOLITIKA/WaterASourceofConflictofCoopintheMiddleEast.pdf</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-17" href="#footnote-anchor-17" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">17</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.suen.gov.tr/uploads/main-report_improving-agricultural-water-use-efficiency-in-the-middle-east.pdf</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-18" href="#footnote-anchor-18" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">18</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/iraq?utm_source=chatgpt.com</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-19" href="#footnote-anchor-19" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">19</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/resource/T%C3%BCrkiye_1BTR.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-20" href="#footnote-anchor-20" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">20</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.statista.com/statistics/878808/total-hydropower-capacity-in-turkey/?srsltid=AfmBOopSRPUlnuZ1NnGTiwMWANF5UFvM7F5P2xvv8HqmTwfrMMbvan5Z</p></div></div><div class="footnote" data-component-name="FootnoteToDOM"><a id="footnote-21" href="#footnote-anchor-21" class="footnote-number" contenteditable="false" target="_self">21</a><div class="footnote-content"><p>https://www.iea.org/countries/turkiye/energy-mix?utm_source=chatgpt.com</p><p></p></div></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[دولتان وقواعد واحدة: ماذا تكشف مساهمتا العراق والسعودية المحددة وطنياً؟]]></title><description><![CDATA[&#1601;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604; &#1571;&#1581;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; &#1578;&#1581;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1578;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1578;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; (NDC 3.0) &#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1617;&#1613; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#8212; &#1608;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1578;&#1575;&#1606; &#1602;&#1615;&#1583;&#1617;&#1616;&#1605;&#1578;&#1575; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1587;&#1603;&#1585;&#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577; &#1576;&#1588;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1593;&#1575;&#1605; 2025.]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/2b1</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/2b1</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Thu, 29 Jan 2026 17:02:10 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XLye!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb10e0283-d7fd-413c-ae25-2e3399919305_1408x768.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>&#1601;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604; &#1571;&#1581;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; 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&#1582;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577;&#8221;.</p><p>&#1573;&#1584;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1572;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;: <strong>&#8220;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1607; &#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585; &#1575;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585;&#8221;</strong><br>&#1576;&#1604;: <strong>&#1605;&#1606; &#1610;&#1601;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1576;&#1577; &#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1603;&#1601;&#1610; &#1604;&#1610;&#1581;&#1605;&#1610; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1607; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575;&#1567;</strong></p><p>&#1604;&#1606;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571;.</p><h3>&#1633;) &#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1588;&#1607;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1606; &#1576;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1591;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1603;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577;&#1567;</h3><ul><li><p>&#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1601;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1571;&#1583;&#1606;&#1575;&#1607;&#1548; &#1587;&#1578;&#1585;&#1609; &#1573;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1589;&#1585;&#1610;&#1581;&#1577; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; COP &#1608;CMA &#1608;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; (&#1571;&#1548; &#1576;&#1548; &#1580;&#1548; &#1583;).</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png" width="681" height="281.0021052631579" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:392,&quot;width&quot;:950,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:681,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><ul><li><p>&#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1548; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577;&#1548; &#1587;&#1578;&#1585;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1588;&#1607;&#1575;&#1583; &#1576;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1581;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577;:</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png" width="618" height="278.55345911949684" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:430,&quot;width&quot;:954,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:618,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1587;&#1575;&#1604;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577;: &#1603;&#1604;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1610;&#1603;&#1578;&#1576; &#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; <strong>&#1605;&#1606; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1581;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1577;</strong>. &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1605;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1588;&#1610;&#1569; &#1607;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1587; &#1576;&#1604; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610; &#1608;&#1604;&#1607; &#1582;&#1591;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1578; &#1608;&#1578;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1588;&#1594;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1578;&#1576;&#1575;&#1593;&#1607;&#1575;.</p></li><li><p><strong> </strong>&#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1585;&#1609; &#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1588;&#1607;&#1583;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; <strong>1/CP.21</strong> &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1601;&#1593;&#1617;&#1604; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1579;&#1576;&#1617;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606;&#1591;&#1602; &#8220;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1617;&#1605;&#8221; &#1608;&#8220;<strong>&#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1605;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;</strong>&#8221; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;. &#1608;&#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1605;&#1585;&#1587;&#1604;&#1577;&#1611; &#1575;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1571;&#1585;&#1583;&#1578; &#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1610;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1601;&#1571;&#1606;&#1578; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1578;&#1576; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575; &#1576;&#1604;&#1594;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;. </p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1604; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1576;&#1608;&#1590;&#1608;&#1581; &#1588;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;: &#1601;&#1607;&#1610; &#1578;&#1615;&#1593;&#1583;&#1617;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1574; (&#1605;&#1606; &#1587;&#1603;&#1585;&#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1606;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1610;&#1606;) &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1592; &#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#8220;&#1578;&#1615;&#1587;&#1606;&#1583; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607;&#1575; &#1573;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575;&#8221;: 1/CP.21 &#1608; 1/CP.24 &#1608; 4/CMA1 &#1608; 6/CMA3&#1548;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; 3 &#1605;&#1606; UNFCCC&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; 24/CP.18 (&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;/&#1573;&#1580;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1576;&#1577;)&#1548; &#1608;&#1593;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; (2.2&#1548; 3&#1548; 4.1&#1548; 4.3&#1548; 4.7&#1548; 4.15&#1548; 7&#1548; 10&#1548; 11&#1548; 13&#1548; 14). &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#8220;<strong>&#1582;&#1585;&#1610;&#1591;&#1577; &#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577;</strong>&#8221; &#1604;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583; &#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1615;&#1602;&#1575;&#1587; &#1608;&#1578;&#1615;&#1581;&#1575;&#1603;&#1605; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575;.</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1601;&#1593;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1610;&#1569; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607; &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1576;&#1586;&#1575;&#1608;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577;: &#1610;&#1585;&#1576;&#1591; &#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1576;&#1600;&#8220;<strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1583; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1633; &#1604;CMA3/4/5</strong>&#8221;&#1548; &#1579;&#1605; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1603;&#1578;&#1601;&#1610; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1585;&#1583;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1610;&#1605;&#1604;&#1571; &#1605;&#1604;&#1581;&#1602; <strong>ICTU</strong> (&#1605;&#1593;&#1604;&#1608;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1578;&#1587;&#1607;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1590;&#1608;&#1581; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1601;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1607;&#1605;) &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1605;&#1604;&#1571;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577;. &#1610;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1605;&#1604;&#1574; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; ICTU &#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606; &#8220;<strong>&#1604;&#1594;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1578;&#1579;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;</strong>&#8221; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1580;&#1593;&#1604;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1588;&#1594;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1588;&#1585;&#1591;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1575;&#1580;&#1576;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1590;&#1608;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; (&#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575;&#1611; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1578;&#1591;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; 4/CMA.1).</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; ICTU &#1601;&#1610; &#1606;&#1607;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1578;&#1610;&#1606; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1578;&#1615;&#1585;&#1609; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607; &#8220;&#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1617;&#1610;&#1577;&#8221; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;: &#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607; &#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; <strong>&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1581; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577;</strong>&#1563; &#1608;&#1573;&#1604;&#1575; &#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1605;&#1610;&#1593; &#1610;&#1593;&#1604;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1580;&#1575;&#1581; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1571;&#1581;&#1583; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602;! </p></li><li><p>&#1573;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; 3 &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1591;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; 2.2 &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1607;&#1605;&#1575; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1600; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1589;&#1575;&#1601; &#1608;&#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1576;&#1575;&#1610;&#1606;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; - &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1602;&#1585;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605;&#1607; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1589;&#1583;&#1610; <strong>&#1604;&#1604;&#1571;&#1593;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1604;&#1577;</strong> &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1602;&#1575;&#1569; &#1601;&#1610; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1591;&#1575;&#1585;.</p></li><li><p>&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1588;&#1607;&#1575;&#1583; &#1576;&#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#8220;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1587;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611;&#8221; &#1576;&#1604; &#1571;&#1602;&#1585;&#1576; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1601;&#1575;&#1593; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1587;</strong>: &#1607;&#1608; &#1610;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1585;&#1602; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606; &#8220;&#1606;&#1585;&#1601;&#1590; &#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1583;&#1603;&#1605;&#8221; (&#1601;&#1578;&#1615;&#1593;&#1586;&#1604; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;)&#1548; &#1608;&#1576;&#1610;&#1606; &#8220;<strong>&#1606;&#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1583;&#1548; &#1579;&#1605; &#1606;&#1580;&#1575;&#1583;&#1604; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1576;&#1606;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589; &#1608;&#1575;&#1601;&#1602;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1571;&#1606;&#1578;&#1605; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611;</strong>&#8221;.</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1604;&#1587;&#1601;&#1607; &#1575;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1604;&#1608; &#1575;&#1593;&#1578;&#1576;&#1585;&#1578; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#8220;&#1607;&#1608;&#1587;&#1575;&#1611; &#1594;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#8221; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1573;&#1580;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1587;&#1593;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1583;&#1608;&#1583;&#1548; &#1608;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1548; &#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1583; &#1606;&#1586;&#1575;&#1607;&#1577; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1606;&#1578;&#1592;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#8220;&#1610;&#1602;&#1578;&#1606;&#1593;&#8221;. &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1588;&#1610;&#1575;&#1569; &#1578;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1610; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1563; &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1601;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1576;&#1577; &#1610;&#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1604;&#1603; &#1589;&#1610;&#1575;&#1594;&#1577; &#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1583;&#1607;&#1575; &#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605; &#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1603;!</p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1603;&#1604;&#1607; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1567; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1587;&#1593;&#1617;&#1585; &#8220;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1610;&#1575;&#1603;&#8221;&#1563; &#1576;&#1604; &#1610;&#1587;&#1593;&#1617;&#1585; <strong>&#1573;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1608;&#1603;&#1605;&#1577;</strong> &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1585;&#1587;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575;. &#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1576;&#1583;&#1578; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1578;&#1603; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1578;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#8220;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#8221;. &#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1576;&#1583;&#1578; &#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1611; &#1589;&#1581;&#1601;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1578;&#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#8220;&#1605;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1585;&#8221; &#1578;&#1615;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1585;.</p><p></p><h3>&#1634;) &#1607;&#1604; &#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1606; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;&#1567;</h3></li><li><p><strong>&#1606;&#1593;&#1605;</strong> &#8212; &#1608;&#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1588;&#1609; &#1605;&#1593; &#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587;.</p></li><li><p>&#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581;&#1607; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581; &#1608;&#1587;&#1607;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577;: &#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1576;&#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; (BAU) &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1615;&#1606;&#1605;&#1584;&#1580;. &#1601;&#1586;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581;&#1607; &#1605;&#1606; &#8220;1&#8211;2% &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; 2030&#8221; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; <strong>3% &#1605;&#1606; BAU &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; 2030</strong>&#1548; &#1579;&#1605; <strong>5% &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591;&#1577; &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; 2035</strong>&#1548; &#1608;<strong>17% &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591;&#1577; &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; 2035</strong> (&#1573;&#1580;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; <strong>22%</strong> &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; + &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; 2035).</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1633;&#1642; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; = &#1633; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581; &#1608;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606;&#1591;&#1602;&#1610; &#1608;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;. </p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1571;&#1582;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1610;&#1601;&#1593;&#1604; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1607;: <strong>&#1610;&#1606;&#1605;&#1584;&#1580; &#1608;&#1610;&#1576;&#1606;&#1610; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1605;&#1601;&#1607;&#1608;&#1605;</strong> &#1579;&#1605; &#1610;&#1593;&#1585;&#1617;&#1601; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1578;&#1607; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607;. &#1601;&#1607;&#1608; &#1610;&#1585;&#1576;&#1591; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1576;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; (2020&#8211;2021) &#1608;&#1605;&#1581;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1604;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1604;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569;&#1548; &#1579;&#1605; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1603;&#1605;&#1585;&#1580;&#1593; &#1604;&#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576; &#8220;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590;&#8221;. &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1578;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1585;&#1602;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; <strong>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1594;&#1606;&#1610; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1587;&#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606; &#1580;&#1608;&#1593;</strong>.</p></li><li><p>&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1610; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611; &#1603;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601; &#1576;&#1606;&#1610;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;. &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1602;&#1585;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1601;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; (BTR) &#1578;&#1588;&#1585;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; 2030 &#1576;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607; <strong>278 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574; &#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;</strong> &#8220;&#1605;&#1582;&#1601;&#1617;&#1590;&#1577;/&#1605;&#1578;&#1580;&#1606;&#1576;&#1577;/&#1605;&#1615;&#1586;&#1575;&#1604;&#1577;&#8221; &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; 2030 &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583; 2019 &#1603;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1548; &#1608; &#1578;&#1578;&#1576;&#1606;&#1617;&#1609; &#1582;&#1591;&#1608;&#1591; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#8220;<strong>&#1583;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610;&#1577;</strong>&#8221; &#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591;&#1577; &#1576;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577;&#1548; &#1578;&#1605;&#1583; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1591;&#1602; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; 2040 &#1601;&#1578;&#1586;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; <strong>335 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574; &#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;</strong> &#8220;&#1610;&#1615;&#1578;&#1614;&#1608;&#1589;&#1617;&#1604; &#1573;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; 2040&#8221;&#1548; &#1605;&#1593; &#1576;&#1602;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;&#1578;&#1603;&#1575;&#1586; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; 2019 &#1608;&#1582;&#1591;&#1608;&#1591; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1583;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1573;&#1606; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#8220;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1617;&#1605; <strong>&#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581;</strong>&#8221; &#1576;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; 20.5% &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1576;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1579; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1609;! </p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1581;&#1610;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; <strong>&#1603;&#1606;&#1575; &#1606;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604;</strong> &#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610;&#1610;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1587;&#1578;&#1586;&#1610;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1587;&#1578;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1605; &#1576;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1578; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1608;&#1587;&#1578;&#1593;&#1585;&#1590; &#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; (&#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1602;&#1585;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;BTR) &#1548; &#1603;&#1606;&#1575; &#1606;&#1615;&#1578;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606;&#1606;&#1575; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575; &#1575;&#1580;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1606;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1606;&#1601;&#1607;&#1605; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1583;&#1574; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;! </p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1608;&#1590;&#1610;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;: &#1578;&#1588;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; 2019 &#1607;&#1610; <strong>664 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574;</strong>&#1548; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; 335 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1604;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577;  &#1610;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1576;&#1605;&#1602;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585; &#8220;<strong>&#1606;&#1589;&#1601;</strong>&#8221; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1578;&#1602;&#1585;&#1610;&#1576;&#1575;&#1611;. </p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577;: &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; <strong>&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;</strong>.</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1602;&#1591;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1585;&#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1594;&#1601;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585;&#1608;&#1606;: &#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#8220;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590;/&#1578;&#1580;&#1606;&#1617;&#1576;/&#1573;&#1586;&#1575;&#1604;&#1577; X &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606;&#8221; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1582;&#1591; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1583;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610;&#1548;  &#1571;&#1606;&#1578; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604;: <strong>&#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1608;&#1610;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;</strong> &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1576;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; (&#1578;&#1589;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1575;&#1605; &#1605;&#1581;&#1604;&#1610;&#1548; &#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1579;&#1602;&#1610;&#1604;&#1577; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604; &#1582;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#8230; &#1573;&#1604;&#1582;). &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1602;&#1583; &#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606;&#1591;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606;&#1607; &#1610;&#1578;&#1591;&#1604;&#1576; &#1606;&#1592;&#1575;&#1605; &#1585;&#1589;&#1583; &#1608;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1594; &#1608;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1571;&#1602;&#1608;&#1609;&#1548; &#1608;&#1582;&#1591;&#1608;&#1591; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1571;&#1608;&#1590;&#1581;&#1548; &#1608;&#1579;&#1602;&#1577; &#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578;. </p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1603;&#1605;&#1604;&#1582;&#1589; &#1576;&#1587;&#1610;&#1591;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1606; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577; &#1610;&#1581;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#8220;&#1605;&#1602;&#1585;&#1608;&#1569;&#1575;&#1611;&#8221; &#1608;&#8220;<strong>&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;</strong>&#8221; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1581;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; &#1581;&#1605;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1585;&#1608;&#1606;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1585;&#1576;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1576;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1582;&#1591;&#1608;&#1591; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1583;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1573;&#1579;&#1576;&#1575;&#1578; &#8220;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1617;&#1605;&#8221; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606;&#1591;&#1602; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587;&#8230; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1589; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1601;&#1603;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1635;) &#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590;&#1575;&#1606; &#1576;&#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1587;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601;&#1548; &#1601;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606;  &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1583; &#1608;&#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581;&#1567;</h3><ul><li><p>&#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590; &#1610;&#1578;&#1593;&#1604;&#1602; <strong>&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591;</strong> &#1604;&#1575; &#1576;&#1573;&#1606;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;. &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1585;&#1590; &#1589;&#1610;&#1575;&#1594;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1593;&#1610;&#1606;&#1577; (&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1603;&#1610;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1606;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; &#8220;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1581;&#1601;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610;&#8221;) &#1608;&#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1578; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607; &#1578;&#1615;&#1580;&#1585;&#1610; &#1573;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1575;&#1578; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1585;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1617;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1583;&#1601;&#1593; &#1606;&#1581;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;. &#1602;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590;&#1575;&#1578; &#1607;&#1610; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1588;&#1578;&#1576;&#1575;&#1603; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; <strong>&#1604;&#1594;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;</strong>&#1563; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1607;&#1610; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1610;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1591;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1601;&#1584;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;: &#8220;&#1587;&#1606;&#1606;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1606;&#1608;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585; &#1576;&#1591;&#1585;&#1610;&#1602;&#1578;&#1606;&#1575;&#8221;. &#1601;&#1607;&#1610; &#1578;&#1615;&#1572;&#1591;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1607;&#1580; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; (CCE)</strong>&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1585;&#1576;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1588;&#1585;&#1577;&#1611; &#1576;&#1600; <strong>&#1585;&#1572;&#1610;&#1577; 2030</strong>&#1563; &#1571;&#1610; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1578;&#1615;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605; &#1603;&#1600; &#8220;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577;&#8221; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1603;&#1608;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#8220;&#1575;&#1593;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#8221;.</p></li><li><p>&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1548; &#1589;&#1585;&#1610;&#1581;&#1577; &#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1610;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1615;&#1602;&#1583;&#1617;&#1614;&#1585; &#1581;&#1602; &#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575;: &#1578;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579; &#1593;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1585; &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1548; &#1608;&#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1585;&#1571;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1602;&#1583; &#1578;&#1607;&#1610;&#1605;&#1606; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;&#1563; &#1601;&#1578;&#1580;&#1583; &#8220;&#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1608;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1605;&#1587;&#1610; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607;&#8221; &#1585;&#1582;&#1610;&#1589;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1610; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1608;&#1605;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1610; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1570;&#1582;&#1585;. &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1609; &#8220;&#1575;&#1604;&#1592;&#1585;&#1608;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577;&#8221; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610;&#1606; &#1610;&#1603;&#1578;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1607; &#1576;&#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1585;&#1575;&#1581;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1603;&#1604;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1578;&#1610;&#1606; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606; &#1588;&#1610;&#1574;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1575;&#1581;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1576;&#1605;&#1601;&#1585;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577;: <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1578;&#1585;&#1601;&#1575;&#1611; &#1571;&#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;</strong>&#1563; &#1573;&#1606;&#1607; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1602;&#1575;&#1569; &#1601;&#1610; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1615;&#1587;&#1593;&#1617;&#1616;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1588;&#1585; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;.</p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1603;&#1585;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1585;&#1601;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1577; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1583;&#1574; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1583;&#1575;&#1604;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1576;&#1575;&#1610;&#1606;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1571;&#1603;&#1610;&#1583; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#8220;<strong>&#1605;&#1606; &#1610;&#1583;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577;</strong>&#8221; &#1608;&#1576;&#1571;&#1610; &#1578;&#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1593; &#8212; &#1608;&#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1589; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607;.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1636;) &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;: &#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1605;&#1610;&#1593; &#1610;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; 6&#1548; &#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1593;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1567;</h3><ul><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; 6 &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578; &#1604;&#1604;&#1586;&#1610;&#1606;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1605;&#1602;&#1563; &#1576;&#1604; &#1580;&#1586;&#1569; &#1605;&#1606; &#1582;&#1591;&#1577; &#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; <strong>&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;</strong>. &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1584;&#1603;&#1585; &#1606;&#1610;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; 6.2 &#1608;6.4 &#1608;&#1610;&#1588;&#1583;&#1583; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1586;&#1575;&#1607;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1601;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1580;&#1606;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1586;&#1583;&#1608;&#1580; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;. <strong>&#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1604;&#1594;&#1577; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583; &#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#8220;&#1573;&#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#8221; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;.</strong></p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1581;&#1584;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611;: &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1573;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1605;&#1604;&#1603; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1575;&#1578;/&#1606;&#1602;&#1575;&#1588;&#1575;&#1578; &#1606;&#1588;&#1591;&#1577; &#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1606;&#1615;&#1607;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1601;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; (6.2)&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1601;&#1592; &#1576;&#1581;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1587;&#1578;&#1578;&#1576;&#1593; &#1573;&#1585;&#1588;&#1575;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1578;. &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1604;&#1594;&#1577; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1578;&#1615;&#1576;&#1602;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1601;&#1578;&#1608;&#1581;&#1577; &#8212; &#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575;&#1611; &#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585; &#1576;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1580; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1575;&#1605; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;. &#1608;&#1605;&#1593; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1606;&#1608;&#1607;&#1606;&#1575; &#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1575; &#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1578; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607;&#1548; &#1578;&#1615;&#1592;&#1607;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1590;&#1593;&#1575;&#1611; <strong>&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1571;&#1602;&#1608;&#1609;</strong>: &#1578;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579; &#1593;&#1606; <strong>&#1607;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1593;&#1610;&#1617;&#1606;&#1577; (DNA)</strong> &#1578;&#1588;&#1585;&#1601; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1585;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585; &#1606;&#1592;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1594; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1606;&#1602;&#1591;&#1577; &#1575;&#1585;&#1578;&#1603;&#1575;&#1586; &#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; 6&#1548; &#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1578;&#1606;&#1592;&#1610;&#1605; &#1573;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;&#1548; &#1608;&#8220;&#1573;&#1589;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583;&#1577;&#8221;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;: &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578; &#1605;&#1578;&#1593;&#1580;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1570;&#1606;&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1580;&#1575;&#1607;&#1586;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1602;&#1585;&#1585;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1601;&#1585;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611; &#1588;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1563; &#1576;&#1604; &#1601;&#1585;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;: &#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1594;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575;&#1611; &#8220;&#1573;&#1583;&#1582;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1576;&#1585;&#1577;&#8221; &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587;&#1577; &#1548; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1594;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575;&#1611; &#8220;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1575;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1575;&#1601;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577;&#8221; &#1578;&#1581;&#1578; &#1590;&#1594;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1581; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1602;&#1575;&#1588; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;: &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;&#1603; &#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1593;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;. &#1578;&#1615;&#1576;&#1606;&#1609; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1591;&#1591; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1610;&#1602; &#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1580;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1608;&#1605;&#1606;&#1591;&#1602; &#8220;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1577;&#8221;&#1548; &#1608;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1594; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1593;&#1605;&#1608;&#1583; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610; &#1602;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#8220;&#1606;&#1593;&#1605;&#8221; &#1608;&#8220;&#1604;&#1575;&#8221; &#1576;&#1604;&#1575; &#1575;&#1585;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1604; &#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610;. &#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1585;&#1587;&#1604; &#1573;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#8220;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577;&#8221;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1585;&#1587;&#1604; &#1573;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#8220;&#1578;&#1581;&#1603;&#1605;&#8221;.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1637;) &#1575;&#1604;&#1592;&#1585;&#1608;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577;</h3><ul><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1610;&#1578;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585;&#1609; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1589;&#1581;&#1585;&#1548; &#1608;&#1591;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593;&#1577; &#1580;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1581;&#1575;&#1578; &#1589;&#1581;&#1585;&#1575;&#1608;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1587;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;&#1606;&#1583;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1607;.</p></li><li><p>&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1578;&#1590;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1589;&#1576;&#1593; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1610;&#1608;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1610;&#1607;&#1610;&#1605;&#1606; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1603;&#1604; &#1588;&#1610;&#1569;: <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1585; &#1608;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1585;&#1571;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604;</strong>. &#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1577;&#1548; &#1605;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591;&#1577; &#1576;&#1573;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1605;&#1578;&#1584;&#1576;&#1584;&#1576;&#1577;&#1548; &#1610;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#8220;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1582;&#1610;&#1589;&#1577;&#8221; &#1605;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#8212; &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1580;&#1593;&#1604;&#1607; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;.</p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1578;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1583; &#1605;&#1593;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591;&#1610;&#1577;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1600; 17% &#1605;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1591;&#1577; &#1589;&#1585;&#1575;&#1581;&#1577;&#1611; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1606;&#1602;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#8212; &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1590;&#1576;&#1591; &#1607;&#1608; &#1580;&#1608;&#1607;&#1585; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1610;&#1585;&#1578;&#1601;&#1593; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1585;&#1578;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1593;&#1605;.</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1603;&#1587;&#1548; &#1578;&#1585;&#1576;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1576;&#1606;&#1605;&#1608; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610; &#1608;&#1578;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1593; &#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604;&#1607; &#1593;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1578;&#1589;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1610;&#1583;&#1585;&#1608;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578;. &#1603;&#1571;&#1606;&#1606;&#1575; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1605;&#1585;&#1570;&#1578;&#1610;&#1606;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#8220;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1593;&#1605; &#1610;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1578;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1606;&#1575;&#8221;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#8220;&#1606;&#1605;&#1608;&#1584;&#1580; &#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1606;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1601;&#1585;&#1590;&#1608;&#1575; &#1571;&#1593;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1591;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580;&#1610;&#1577;&#8221;.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1638;) &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1604;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1594; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1606;&#1602;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610;&#1575;.</h3><ul><li><p>&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#8220;&#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578;&#8221;:&#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1575;&#1606;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1608;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1576;&#1603;&#1577;&#1548; &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606;&#1592;&#1601;&#1548; &#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1576;&#1577;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1580;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577;&#1548; &#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1573;&#1580;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1579;&#1575;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; (LDAR &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586;)&#1548; &#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1602;&#1604;&#1548; &#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1548;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1605;&#1610;&#1579;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1575;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1608;&#1582;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; &#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1608;&#1581;&#1575;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593;&#1577;. </p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1587;&#1571;&#1607;&#1578;&#1605; &#1576;<strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1592;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1593;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;</strong>. &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1604;&#1581;&#1602; ICTU &#1578;&#1584;&#1603;&#1585; &#1575;&#1581;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604; &#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1579; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1605;&#1593; &#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1582;&#1585;&#1575;&#1591; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1578;&#1608;&#1601;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1594; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602;.</p></li><li><p>&#1610;&#1615;&#1592;&#1607;&#1585; &#1606;&#1605;&#1608;&#1584;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; (NDC) &#1606;&#1607;&#1580;&#1611;&#1575; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610;&#1611;&#1575; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1588;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604;&#1611;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1580;&#1575;&#1604; &#1585;&#1589;&#1583; &#1608;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1576;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;. &#1601;&#1607;&#1608; &#1610;&#1589;&#1601; &#1606;&#1592;&#1575;&#1605;&#1611;&#1575; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1611;&#1575; &#1604;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583; &#1608;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1576;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1576;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1610;&#1615;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585; &#1576;&#1608;&#1575;&#1587;&#1591;&#1577; &#1606;&#1592;&#1575;&#1605; &#1573;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; (DNA)&#1548; &#1608;&#1610;&#1615;&#1594;&#1584;&#1610; &#1603;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1578;&#1576;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1594; &#1593;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575;.  </p></li><li><p>&#1606;&#1602;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1575; &#1605;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1603;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;. &#1608;&#1610;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1583; &#1588;&#1585;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1589;&#1585;&#1575;&#1581;&#1577;&#1611; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1563; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1578;&#1585;&#1576;&#1591;&#1593; &#1576;&#1578;&#1606;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1548; &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1593;&#1578;&#1576;&#1585; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611; &#1578;&#1583;&#1575;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1570;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1593;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1583;&#1608;&#1583; (CBAM) &#1593;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1602; &#1605;&#1581;&#1578;&#1605;&#1604;&#1577; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1575;&#1585;.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1639;) &#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1606;&#1578;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605; &#1605;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577;&#1567;</h3><ul><li><p>&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1577; &#1603;&#1583;&#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1585;&#1563; &#1573;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; <strong>&#1583;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577;</strong> &#1578;&#1615;&#1579;&#1576;&#1617;&#1578; &#1581;&#1580;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1583;&#1575;&#1604;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1593;&#1605; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1605;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1593;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580;&#1610;&#1577; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1606;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589; &#1605;&#1615;&#1578;&#1601;&#1602; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1576;&#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1581;&#1605;&#1610; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1603; &#1608;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1583;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580;&#1607;. </p></li><li><p>&#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1571;&#1585;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1601; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1579; &#1593;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1603;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#8220;&#1578;&#1584;&#1603;&#1585;&#1577; &#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1589;&#1610;&#1576;&#8221;. &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1578;&#1584;&#1603;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1604;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1638;.&#1634; &#1608;&#1638;.&#1636; &#1608;&#1578;&#1584;&#1603;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1591;&#1604;&#1608;&#1576;&#1577; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1578;&#1580;&#1606;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1586;&#1583;&#1608;&#1580; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#1563; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1591;&#1608;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1607;&#1610; <strong>&#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1610;&#1576; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610;</strong> &#1605;&#1606; &#1580;&#1607;&#1577; &#1605;&#1608;&#1579;&#1608;&#1602;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1587;&#1580;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1587;&#1580;&#1610;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1594; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1603;&#1610;&#1585; &#8220;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1577;&#8221;.</p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1608;&#1590;&#1608;&#1593;  &#1570;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1593;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1583;&#1608;&#1583;CBAM: &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1605;&#1578; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1581;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611;&#1563; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1605;&#1578; &#1578;&#1571;&#1580;&#1610;&#1604;. &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1583;&#1571;&#1578; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1593;&#1604; &#1576;&#1578;&#1571;&#1591;&#1610;&#1585; CBAM &#1603;&#1593;&#1575;&#1574;&#1602; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#8220;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#8221;. &#1608;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569; &#1578;&#1571;&#1591;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607; &#1605;&#1576;&#1603;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1589;&#1583;&#1617;&#1585;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1576;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1607;&#1605; &#1605;&#1606; &#1610;&#1583;&#1601;&#1593;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1605;&#1606; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1583;&#1608;&#1583;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1571;&#1582;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611;: &#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1585;&#1602;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1575;&#1576;&#1585;&#1575;&#1614;&#1611;&#8230; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1607;&#1608; <strong>&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1601;&#1575;&#1593; &#1593;&#1606;&#1607;</strong>. &#1575;&#1606;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1606;&#1581;&#1608; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1571;&#1608;&#1590;&#1581; &#1608;&#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1575;&#1606;&#1590;&#1576;&#1575;&#1591;&#1575;&#1611; &#1607;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1610;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1608;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1576;&#1604;&#1608;&#1605;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;&#1577;.</p></li></ul><p>&#1583;. &#1571;&#1581;&#1605;&#1583; &#1603;&#1614;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610; </p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Two Countries, One Rulebook: What Iraq and Saudi NDCs Really Reveal?]]></title><description><![CDATA[In this article, I try to unpack and compare Iraqi and Saudi Arabia new Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) 3.0.]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/two-oil-states-one-rulebook-what</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/two-oil-states-one-rulebook-what</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Wed, 28 Jan 2026 18:53:47 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XLye!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb10e0283-d7fd-413c-ae25-2e3399919305_1408x768.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>In this article, I try to unpack and compare Iraqi and Saudi Arabia new Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) 3.0. Both submitted to UNFCCC in 2025. </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XLye!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb10e0283-d7fd-413c-ae25-2e3399919305_1408x768.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XLye!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb10e0283-d7fd-413c-ae25-2e3399919305_1408x768.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XLye!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb10e0283-d7fd-413c-ae25-2e3399919305_1408x768.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XLye!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb10e0283-d7fd-413c-ae25-2e3399919305_1408x768.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XLye!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb10e0283-d7fd-413c-ae25-2e3399919305_1408x768.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XLye!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb10e0283-d7fd-413c-ae25-2e3399919305_1408x768.png" width="592" height="322.90909090909093" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XLye!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb10e0283-d7fd-413c-ae25-2e3399919305_1408x768.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XLye!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb10e0283-d7fd-413c-ae25-2e3399919305_1408x768.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XLye!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb10e0283-d7fd-413c-ae25-2e3399919305_1408x768.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!XLye!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb10e0283-d7fd-413c-ae25-2e3399919305_1408x768.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>People like to talk about Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) as if they are &#8220;climate poetry&#8221;: vague aspirations, nice words, and a few numbers sprinkled on top.</p><p>But when you read <a href="https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/2025-11/%D9%88%D8%AB%D9%8A%D9%82%D8%A9%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%87%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%20%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%AF%D8%A9%20%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A7%20-%202025.pdf">Iraq&#8217;s 2025 NDC</a> and <a href="https://unfccc.int/sites/default/files/2026-01/2nd%20KSA%20NDC%20Document%20Final%20Document%20%2828122025%29_DNA.pdf">Saudi Arabia&#8217;s 2025 NDC</a> side-by-side, you realise something interesting: <strong>both oil economies are treating the UNFCCC/Paris framework like a rulebook for markets and diplomacy</strong>, not like an environmental charity brochure.</p><p>So the right question is not &#8220;who is greener?&#8221;</p><p>It is: <strong>who understands the game well enough to protect their economy while playing it?</strong></p><p>Let&#8217;s begin. </p><h3>1) Why do both NDCs cite UNFCCC decisions like they&#8217;re legal arguments?</h3><ul><li><p>In the first page of Saudi new NDC you see reference to important COP, CMA, and Paris Agreement decisions and articles (a,b,c,d): </p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png" width="608" height="250.88" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!znlI!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F450280c2-9f2c-4ecf-89e9-2e5561510a2b_950x392.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>Similarliy, in Iraq&#8217;s new NDC, you see citing key decisions: </p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png" width="580" height="261.42557651991615" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!RHDe!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fb60cd692-500f-47ce-8fce-c2a8e27522ed_954x430.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><ul><li><p><strong>It is clear that both countries are now basing their climate change policies  from inside the Paris Agreement </strong>respecting previous decisions beleiving that the Paris Agreement is not &#8220;a vibe&#8221;. It is a process with operating instructions. For example, Saudi NDC citing<strong> </strong>decision 1/CP.21 which is literally the decision that <em>operationalised</em> Paris and hardwired the logic of &#8220;progression&#8221; and &#8220;highest possible ambition&#8221; into the system. If you want to benefit from the system, you signal that you are writing your NDC <strong>in the language of that system.</strong></p></li><li><p>Saudi Arabia is extremely explicit about this, and that is <strong>not accidental</strong>. It lists the exact decisions and articles it wants the reader (and the Secretariat, and investors, and trade partners) to know it is anchoring itself to: 1/CP.21, 1/CP.24, 4/CMA.1, 6/CMA.3, UNFCCC Article 3, decision 24/CP.18 (economic diversification / response measures), and multiple Paris Agreement articles (2.2, 3, 4.1, 4.3, 4.7, 4.15, 7, 10, 11, 13, 14). That is a <strong>deliberate &#8220;legal map&#8221;</strong> of how it wants to be judged.</p></li><li><p><strong>Iraq is doing the same thing in its own way&#8212;just with a different emphasis.</strong> Iraq&#8217;s NDC explicitly positions its increased mitigation ambition as aligned with &#8220;rules and decisions,&#8221; and then it actually fills an &#8220;Information to Facilitate Clarity, Transparency, and Understanding&#8221; (<strong>ICTU</strong>) annex (not just narrative claims), which is the practical language of compliance, as it is also provided by Saudi NDC because this is a requirnment of decision <strong>4/CMA.1</strong>.</p></li><li><p><strong>The &#8220;ICTU tables&#8221; at the end of both documents are where seriousness becomes visible.</strong> ICTU exists because Parties agreed (through CMA decisions) that NDCs must be explainable and comparable&#8212;<strong>otherwise everyone claims success</strong> and nobody can verify anything. The whole point of the guidance (notably the Katowice rulebook era) is to turn NDCs from political slogans into trackable commitments.</p></li><li><p><strong>For oil-based economies, citing these decisions is not surrender; it is self-defence.</strong> It is the difference between:<br>&#8220;We refuse your rules&#8221; (and you get isolated), versus:<br>&#8220;We accept the rules, and now we will argue inside them, using the principles Western Countries already agreed to.<strong>&#8221;</strong></p></li><li><p>UNFCCC Article 3 and Paris Article 2.2 are basically the legal home of &#8220;equity / CBDR-RC / national circumstances&#8221;&#8212;the backbone that oil economies use to push back against unfair burdens while still staying inside the tent.</p></li><li><p><strong>And yes&#8212;this matters even if you think mitigation is &#8220;Western obsession.&#8221;</strong> Because trade measures, border carbon pricing, climate finance conditionality, MRV expectations, and carbon market integrity rules do not wait for Iraq to &#8220;feel convinced.&#8221; They arrive anyway. Being inside the rulebook is how you negotiate their shape.</p></li><li><p><strong>Why should an oil country care?</strong> Because the world does not price <em>your intentions</em> &#8212; it prices your <em>governance signal</em>. If your NDC reads like a serious instrument (with ICTU, baselines, accounting logic, MRV pathway), you become investable; if it reads like a press release, you become a risk premium.</p></li></ul><h3>2) Did both countries actually raise ambition?</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Yes</strong>, in line with the Paris Agreement rules. </p></li><li><p><strong>Iraq&#8217;s increase is straightforward and easy to interpret: </strong>it raises the <em>percentage</em> against a modelled Business-as-Usual (BAU) scenario<strong>.</strong> Iraq moves from the old &#8220;1&#8211;2% by 2030&#8221; to 3% of BAU by 2030, plus 5% unconditional by 2035, plus 17% conditional by 2035 (total 22% conditional+unconditional by 2035). That is an actual ratchet in the same metric, and it is presented with a BAU story that starts around ~198 MtCO&#8322;e in 2020 and reaches ~300 MtCO&#8322;e by 2035.</p></li><li><p><strong>More importantly: Iraq finally does what serious NDCs must do&#8212;build a baseline that can be make sense and define its contributions.</strong> It ties its BAU to inventory data (2020&#8211;2021) and drivers like GDP, population, sector activity, and power demand, then uses that BAU as the reference for &#8220;reductions.&#8221; Without this, a percentage target is just a floating number that &#8220;neither feeds nor fattens.&#8221;</p></li><li><p><strong>Saudi Arabia&#8217;s increase is real&#8212;but the metric is structurally different and therefore easier to misread.</strong> In its BTR, Saudi explains its 2030 target as 278 million tons CO&#8322;e per year reduced/avoided/removed by 2030 with <strong>2019 as the base year</strong>, and it explicitly uses <strong>dynamic baselines</strong> tied to economic pathways.</p></li><li><p><strong>In its 2025 NDC, Saudi extends and scales that logic to 2040:</strong> it aims to <strong>reduce/avoid/remove 335 million tons CO&#8322;e annually &#8220;to be reached by 2040&#8221;</strong>, still anchored to 2019 and dynamic baselines, and it claims this is a <strong>20.5% progression</strong> from the updated first NDC (and that NDC1 was already a big jump from the INDC).</p></li><li><p>For complete clarity, Saudi 2019 emissions are <strong>664 MtCO&#8322;e, </strong>so the new goal to reduce/avoid/remove 335 million tons CO&#8322;e, is around<strong> half </strong>of the base year.</p></li><li><p>By the way, Saudi new ambitions is completely <strong>UNCONDITIONAL</strong>. </p></li><li><p><strong>Here is the critical point many readers miss:</strong> when you say &#8220;reduce/avoid/remove X MtCO&#8322;e&#8221; <strong>on a dynamic baseline</strong>, you are not giving the world a single clean percentage that outsiders can interpret in one line. You are saying: <em>the counterfactual matters</em>, and the counterfactual changes with economic structure (exports vs domestic use, heavy industry vs services, etc.). That can be defensible&#8212;but it demands stronger MRV, clearer baselines, and higher trust.</p></li><li><p><strong>So the comparison in plain language:</strong> Iraq is trying to become legible and investable by building a conventional BAU+% architecture; Saudi is trying to protect national flexibility by anchoring ambition to pathways and &#8220;dynamic baselines,&#8221; while still proving &#8220;progression&#8221; under the Paris logic of ratcheting and <strong>most importantly beleiving in economic diversification and climate change impacts</strong>. </p></li></ul><h3>3) If Saudi negotiates aggressively at COPs, why does it still comply, cite rules, and raise ambition?</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Because negotiation is about </strong><em><strong>terms</strong></em><strong>, not about denying reality.</strong> A country can resist specific language (e.g., how <strong>&#8220;fossil fuels&#8221;</strong> are framed), while still pursuing domestic reforms that reduce risk, improve efficiency, and diversify income. The COP room is where you fight over the <strong>wording of obligations</strong>; the NDC is where you organise your national plan within the accepted architecture.</p></li><li><p><strong>Saudi&#8217;s NDC basically says: &#8220;We will transition in our own way.&#8221;</strong> It frames climate action through a Circular Carbon Economy (CCE) approach and explicitly links its NDC to Vision 2030 diversification&#8212;meaning the NDC is being used as economic policy packaging, not as climate confession.</p></li><li><p><strong>Iraq&#8217;s NDC, in contrast, is honest about constraints that is sometimes rarely appreciated.</strong> It talks about financing costs, sovereign risk, and the reality that in places like Iraq, capital charges dominate project economics; so &#8220;the same solar panel&#8221; can be cheap in one country and expensive in another. That is exactly what &#8220;national circumstances&#8221; is supposed to mean, but few states say it clearly.</p></li><li><p><strong>Both documents are essentially saying:</strong> economic diversification is not a moral choice; it is a survival strategy in a world where carbon is being priced indirectly through markets, trade, and finance.</p></li><li><p><strong>And that is why both of them keep pointing back to principles like CBDR-RC and equity.</strong> Not because they want to escape action, but because they want to control the cost distribution of that action in line with the Paris Agreement itself. </p></li></ul><h3>4) Carbon markets: if everyone talks about Article 6, why do Iraq and Saudi treat it so differently?</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Iraq is explicit: Article 6 is not decoration&#8212;it is part of the plan to make the NDC financeable.</strong> Iraq states it intends to use <strong>Article 6.2 cooperative approaches</strong> and <strong>Article 6.4</strong>, and even flags <strong>Article 6.8</strong> for non-market approaches, while stressing integrity, transparency, and avoiding double counting. That is the language of a country that wants to convert &#8220;mitigation potential&#8221; into <em>bankable pipelines</em>.</p></li><li><p><strong>Saudi is more cautious in the NDC&#8217;s ICTU annex:</strong> it says it does <strong>not currently have active agreements or discussions</strong> for Article 6 cooperative approaches, but it <strong>reserves the right</strong> to participate later and will follow CMA guidance if it does. That is the language of a country keeping options open&#8212;especially because it is already managing a large domestic portfolio of actions it may prefer to count internally. However, Saudi Arabia does have a company for Voluntary Carbon Markets. </p></li><li><p><strong>Yet Saudi simultaneously shows stronger institutional posture:</strong> it describes a Designated National Authority (<strong>DNA)</strong> that oversees reporting, runs the national MRV system, and even serves as a focal point for Article 6 implementation, including regulating carbon management, approving projects, and &#8220;issuance of credits.&#8221; In other words: <em>not eager to sell yet, but structurally ready to control the gate.</em></p></li><li><p><strong>This difference is not cosmetic&#8212;it is strategy.</strong> Iraq&#8217;s priority is often: &#8220;bring finance + expertise in&#8221;; Saudi&#8217;s priority is often: &#8220;keep sovereignty over accounting + competitiveness,&#8221; especially under trade pressure.</p></li><li><p><strong>And here is the uncomfortable truth for Iraqi discourse:</strong> you cannot build a credible Article 6 position by speeches. You build it by baselines, registries, corresponding adjustments logic, MRV capacity, and an institutional spine that can say &#8220;yes&#8221; and &#8220;no&#8221; to projects without political improvisation. Iraq is signalling intent; Saudi is signalling control.</p></li></ul><h3>5) &#8220;National circumstances&#8221;.</h3><ul><li><p><strong>They share the headline risks&#8212;desertification and water stress.</strong> Iraq and Saudi  describe an arid ecosystem, heavy desert coverage, water scarcity.</p></li><li><p><strong>Iraq&#8217;s NDC makes clear the structural constraint that dominates everything: risk and cost of capital.</strong> When your sovereign risk is high and off-taker creditworthiness is tied to volatile oil revenues, even &#8220;cheap&#8221; clean tech becomes expensive, and that shapes what is realistic as unconditional vs conditional.</p></li><li><p><strong>That is why Iraq&#8217;s NDC architecture leans on conditionality:</strong> the 17% is explicitly dependent on finance, technology transfer, and capacity building, which is exactly how Paris was designed for developing countries (ambition rises with support).</p></li><li><p><strong>Saudi&#8217;s NDC, on the other hand, ties ambition to sustained economic growth and diversification funded by hydrocarbon export revenues.</strong> This is almost the mirror image: Iraq says &#8220;support lowers our costs&#8221;; Saudi says &#8220;our export model funds our transition, but don&#8217;t impose abnormal burdens through external policies.&#8221;</p></li></ul><h3>6) Cross-sector mitigation, MRV, and technology transfer.</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Iraq&#8217;s NDC is clear on the cross-sector menu:</strong> power efficiency and grid losses, fuel switching, combined-cycle upgrades, renewables, industrial process improvements, oil and gas methane measures (LDAR, gas capture), transport shifts, building efficiency, waste methane, nature-based options. This is the practical backbone of &#8220;we can do more, but not for free.&#8221;</p></li><li><p><strong>It also tells you what Iraq thinks is the real bottleneck: systems, not slogans.</strong> Even in the ICTU annex, Iraq notes it may update BAU with improved data, carbon market engagement, and MRV availability&#8212;meaning it recognises that accounting capacity is itself a constraint on ambition.</p></li><li><p><strong>Saudi&#8217;s NDC shows a more institutionalised MRV posture.</strong> It describes a national MRV system managed by the DNA, feeding into both NDC tracking and reporting. That is exactly what turns &#8220;plans&#8221; into compliance-grade evidence.</p></li><li><p><strong>Saudi&#8217;s BTR reinforces that it is already thinking in indicators and tracking logic (not just projects).</strong> It frames progress in areas like natural gas utilisation and methane management with explicit &#8220;relation to NDC&#8221; indicator tables&#8212;again, governance work that markets and negotiators trust more than speeches.</p></li><li><p><strong>Technology transfer is where the Paris bargain becomes real, not rhetorical.</strong> Iraq&#8217;s conditionality explicitly depends on technology and capacity building; Saudi frames participation in platforms and national programs, but also frames external trade measures like Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) as potential barriers to its chosen technology pathway.</p></li></ul><h3>7)What we should learn from this comparison?</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Do not treat &#8220;UNFCCC decisions cited&#8221; as decoration.</strong> They are economic shields: they anchor your claims on fairness, support, and protection against external burdens inside agreed text, not in emotional television arguments.</p></li><li><p><strong>If Iraq wants carbon markets, it must stop speaking about them like a lottery ticket.</strong> Iraq&#8217;s NDC already states intent to use 6.2/6.4 and prevent double counting&#8212;good. The next step is institutional muscle: a credible authority, registry logic, MRV pipelines, and a &#8220;corresponding adjustments&#8221; culture that survives domestic politics.</p></li><li><p><strong>On CBAM, silence is not neutrality&#8212;it is delay.</strong> Saudi is already framing CBAM as a barrier to nationally determined pathways; Iraq should build its own framing early, before exporters and future industries become the ones paying the price at the border.</p></li><li><p><strong>And finally: ambition is not a number; ambition is &#8220;a number you can defend.&#8221;</strong> Iraq&#8217;s move toward a clearer BAU and ICTU structure is exactly the kind of needed competence that makes finance, markets, and diplomacy possible</p></li></ul><p></p><p>Dr. Ahmed Gailani </p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[The Wisdom of Change and the Art of Balancing in Iraq's new NDC 3.0]]></title><description><![CDATA[What is Iraq&#8217;s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)?]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/the-wisdom-of-change-and-the-art</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/the-wisdom-of-change-and-the-art</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Fri, 28 Nov 2025 15:08:28 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!a09x!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3d5c3fa-b6aa-4c64-96aa-0817ff7005f7_1215x1735.jpeg" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!a09x!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3d5c3fa-b6aa-4c64-96aa-0817ff7005f7_1215x1735.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!a09x!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3d5c3fa-b6aa-4c64-96aa-0817ff7005f7_1215x1735.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!a09x!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3d5c3fa-b6aa-4c64-96aa-0817ff7005f7_1215x1735.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!a09x!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3d5c3fa-b6aa-4c64-96aa-0817ff7005f7_1215x1735.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!a09x!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3d5c3fa-b6aa-4c64-96aa-0817ff7005f7_1215x1735.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!a09x!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3d5c3fa-b6aa-4c64-96aa-0817ff7005f7_1215x1735.jpeg" width="302" height="431.2510288065844" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!a09x!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3d5c3fa-b6aa-4c64-96aa-0817ff7005f7_1215x1735.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!a09x!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3d5c3fa-b6aa-4c64-96aa-0817ff7005f7_1215x1735.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!a09x!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3d5c3fa-b6aa-4c64-96aa-0817ff7005f7_1215x1735.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!a09x!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ff3d5c3fa-b6aa-4c64-96aa-0817ff7005f7_1215x1735.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3>What is Iraq&#8217;s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)?</h3><ul><li><p>It is a national action plan that Iraq submits as part of its <strong>legally binding</strong> obligations under the Paris Agreement on climate change. It explains what Iraq will do in the coming years to reduce emissions and to adapt to the impacts of climate change. It also serves as <strong>an economic roadmap</strong> that guides investment, justifies Iraq&#8217;s request for international climate finance, and reassures markets that Iraq has a clear planning for energy and infrastructure.</p></li><li><p><strong>Domestically:</strong> the NDC is a reference framework for the government, ministries and the private sector <strong>to define climate policies and investments.</strong> No ministry is supposed to go beyond what it is allowed to do under the NDC. It therefore frames all investment decisions and plans of ministries and institutions.</p></li><li><p>For example, if, in order to achieve the NDC&#8217;s targets, a country needs to reduce emissions from the power sector to 20 million tonnes of CO&#8322;-equivalent while the sector currently emits 40 million tonnes, <strong>this becomes extremely important</strong>. The NDC then directs the investments needed to achieve that goal and guides private-sector investment, as happens in most countries, especially in Western states and in China. Failing to work towards the target creates a major risk for the country&#8217;s reputation, and also affects access to climate finance, given that achieving NDCs is one of the main objectives of the Paris Agreement.</p></li><li><p><strong>Externally:</strong> the NDC demonstrates the state&#8217;s commitment infront of  the international community and opens the door to <strong>climate finance</strong> and green investment.</p></li><li><p>International institutions (such as the Green Climate Fund, development banks and donors) <strong>rely on the NDC</strong> to identify funding priorities for projects in a given country. Without a clear NDC, it becomes difficult to attract investments or grants.</p></li><li><p><strong>Unfortunately</strong>, in Iraq some people see the NDC as a document that belongs only to the Ministry of Environment. In reality, most Western countries treat the NDC as the <strong>reference document for all national policies on energy and the economy</strong>. What is in the NDC outweighs any other strategy document. Some countries even make its contents <strong>legally binding,</strong> such as the United Kingdom.</p></li><li><p>For example, the Net Zero target is the UK&#8217;s NDC mitigation goal, and the same target has been enacted by Parliament in law. All ministries must comply with it and deliver it, regardless of the cost and regardless of the political orientation of the party or coalition in government.</p></li></ul><h3>Why should Iraq&#8217;s NDC be the main reference for ministries and institutions?</h3><ul><li><p>It is clear to many that most sectoral ministries &#8211; such as electricity, industry, oil, gas, transport, municipalities and others &#8211; use fossil fuels every day as part of their normal operations. For example, the Ministry of Electricity burns natural gas and other fuels in its power stations to generate electricity, which in turn leads to releasing greenhouse-gas emissions to the atmpsohere.</p></li><li><p>Because the NDC specifies the annual emissions levels for each sector in the country, it <strong>effectively defines how ministries are supposed to operate</strong>, and frames their projects and investments. <strong>Ministries and institutions should not exceed the maximum emissions allowed for Iraq in the NDC.</strong></p></li><li><p>Someone might ask: why should we commit to what is written in the NDC? Does this not impose an extra burden on ministries or on the state?</p></li><li><p>My answer is that adhering to the NDC ensures that Iraq focuses on relatively &#8220;easy&#8221; emission-reduction projects that are in <strong>Iraq&#8217;s own interest</strong>, and that do not impose net costs on the state, in exchange for returns and international financing guaranteed under the Paris Agreement. The NDC also does not force the state to bear emission-reduction burdens that go beyond its capabilities, as we will see later.</p></li><li><p>For example, most of the projects currently being implemented in Iraq are <strong>energy and resource efficiency projects</strong>, which are also often emission-reduction projects. These are in Iraq&#8217;s higher economic interest and should be implemented even if they initially appear costly, because they deliver benefits that exceed their costs over the long term or over the lifetime of the projects. Some projects are also implemented to achieve social outcomes inside the country.</p></li><li><p>For instance, relieving bottlenecks in the electricity grid will reduce network losses and therefore cut emissions over the long term. Converting simple-cycle power stations to combined-cycle plants yields around a one-third increase in efficiency, which helps raise the level of electricity supply and at the same time reduces emissions as a secondary benefit.</p></li><li><p>Iraq thus undertakes these projects because of <strong>their economic or social merit,</strong> regardless of the emissions they generate or avoid. The primary reason for doing them is not emissions reduction, but improved energy efficiency and increased energy resources.</p></li><li><p>At the same time, <strong>Iraq is one of the countries most affected by the impacts of climate change</strong>. It therefore has a strong need for finance to adapt to those impacts, and to access funds for the losses and damages caused by climate-related events such as severe storms and heatwaves. <strong>Iraq cannot credibly claim such finance without an NDC document</strong> written in a scientific and good faith.</p></li><li><p>So far, Iraq has obtained at least 50 million US dollars from the Green Climate Fund alone to support climate-resilient agriculture, especially in our southern governorates.</p></li><li><p>If we look across all the environmental and climate-related funding that Iraq receives, the total would be much higher.</p></li><li><p>The NDC enables the implementation of emission-reduction projects that do not cost the state money and that generate income through different international funding channels. In this way, the Paris Agreement can often be <strong>economically beneficial for Iraq.</strong></p></li><li><p>What if ministries and institutions do not comply with the NDC? In that case, Iraq would be considered as not having fulfilled its contribution, funding would eventually stop, and the country would be, in effect, outside the Paris Agreement &#8211; facing massive <strong>institutional and financial isolation</strong> in a world that increasingly puts a price on carbon emissions at the border.</p></li></ul><h3>What does Trump have to do with us?</h3><ul><li><p>Some people say: <strong>if the United States withdrew from the Paris Agreement, why should Iraq submit an NDC?</strong> Why not ride on Trump&#8217;s climate-sceptic and fossil-fuel-friendly positions, which seem aligned with Iraq&#8217;s oil interests, and use that to justify Iraq&#8217;s stance?</p></li><li><p>First of all, <strong>122 out of 198 countries</strong> have already submitted their NDCs, including China, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, Nigeria, Turkey, Mexico and Zimbabwe, and India is expected to submit its NDC next month.</p></li><li><p>Iraq is therefore aligning itself with the <strong>broad international majority</strong> and consensus by submitting an updated NDC, as other countries have done.</p></li><li><p>Second, far from benefiting Iraq, Trump&#8217;s arrival in power meant that the oil market saw an immediate oversupply, as US oil production was ramped up under the &#8220;drill, baby, drill&#8221; approach, and investment in US oil was maintained instead of relying on other sources in the global market. At the same time, Trump exerted political pressure on OPEC to reduce oil prices. As we saw, <strong>oil prices fell significantly</strong> after he took office, reaching around <strong>62 dollars per barrel</strong>, which created serious pressure on Iraq&#8217;s budget that depends heavily on global oil prices.</p></li><li><p><strong>Iraq always seeks to maintain relatively high oil prices in the short term</strong>, until it can carry out economic reforms that allow it to diversify its sources of income and reduce its dependence on oil as the only revenue source. Falling prices due to Trump&#8217;s policies and pressure do not place Iraq in a comfortable position in terms of its budget. <strong>In the short term,</strong> <strong>Trump&#8217;s impact on Iraq&#8217;s economy is more harmful than beneficial in the long term.</strong></p></li><li><p>If the US were not exerting downward pressure on oil prices, Iraq would probably be among the last countries to be affected by the global energy transition, given its <strong>comparatively low oil production costs.</strong></p></li><li><p>Third, <strong>Qatar is a gas-rich country</strong> with the third-largest gas reserves in the world. It updated its NDC, as Iraq did, and is actively seeking to diversify its economy. It has pledged real emissions reductions of 40 million tonnes of CO&#8322;-equivalent compared to 2019, not just reductions against a business-as-usual scenario. Why, then, did Qatar not &#8220;benefit&#8221; from Trump&#8217;s positions?</p></li><li><p>Fourth, decisions in climate Conferences of Parties <strong>do not necessarily hinge on Trump.</strong> Did the US withdrawal from the Paris Agreement lead to the cancellation of the COP28 decision adopted in Dubai on &#8220;Transitionining Away from Fossil Fuels&#8221;? No, the decision was not cancelled.</p></li><li><p>Fifth, we are talking about setting NDC targets for <strong>2035</strong> as a roadmap for Iraq &#8211; well beyond Trump&#8217;s time in office, which runs only to 2029.</p></li><li><p>Sixth, the updated NDC contains much wider and more detailed information on <strong>adaptation, loss and damage</strong> and Iraq&#8217;s needs. How can Iraq credibly claim international funding without an updated NDC? Will Trump provide Iraq with the required finance instead of the Green Climate Fund, for example?</p></li><li><p>Seventh, if Iraq wants to activate carbon markets like other countries, i<strong>t must submit an updated NDC</strong>. These markets cannot be activated on the basis of the old NDC, which does not contain the rule-set needed to engage in those markets. No country seeking to use Article 6 mechanisms has failed to update its NDC. Will Trump help us activate those markets?</p></li><li><p>So again: what does Trump have to do with us? Decisions should be based on a broad, <strong>national Iraqi vision</strong> &#8211; not on external influences.</p></li></ul><h3>Why is the updated 2025 NDC better than Iraq&#8217;s old 2021 NDC?</h3><ul><li><p>It is simply part of life that we learn from our past mistakes. There is nothing wrong with that. <strong>As time passes, science and technology advance</strong>, and climate-policy work gathers momentum, it is natural that the 2025 updated NDC should be better than the 2021 version.</p></li><li><p>In the mitigation chapter in particular, the new NDC was developed using the <strong>latest standards and scientific modelling methods</strong>, in a way that matches the weight and historical responsibility of a country like Iraq.</p></li><li><p>For the first time, <strong>a scientifically robust business-as-usual (BAU) scenario</strong> was modelled, based on the national greenhouse-gas inventory for 2020&#8211;2021 and Iraq&#8217;s Biennial Transparency Report (BTR). This represents a real starting point for estimating Iraq&#8217;s total emissions across all sectors.</p></li><li><p><strong>The figure below</strong> shows the BAU scenario for Iraq&#8217;s total emissions across various sectors (energy, industry, agriculture, waste and land use), according to the IPCC classification and starting from the 2020 national inventory. <strong>It shows that the energy sector accounts for more than 75% of Iraq&#8217;s total emissions.</strong> It also shows that, in the absence of climate policies to reduce emissions &#8211; and with a growing population (and therefore rising energy consumption and emissions) &#8211; Iraq&#8217;s total emissions could reach 300 million tonnes of CO&#8322;-equivalent by 2035.</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17Y2!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17Y2!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17Y2!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17Y2!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17Y2!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17Y2!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png" width="758" height="506" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:506,&quot;width&quot;:758,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17Y2!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17Y2!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17Y2!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17Y2!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><ul><li><p>To produce the BAU figure, <strong>detailed modelling of the key emission drivers in each sector had to be carried out.</strong> This includes projecting peak electricity demand now and in the future; estimating the total vehicle fleet in the transport sector; projecting oil production; incorporating energy-efficiency parameters; accounting for projects completed before 2025; and projecting population growth and GDP. This is not work that can be done overnight; it requires a specialist in modelling.</p></li><li><p>Without a BAU scenario, <strong>you cannot calculate emission reductions</strong>, and you cannot know whether a country has achieved its NDC target under the Paris Agreement. BAU is therefore essential.</p></li><li><p><strong>You also cannot enter carbon markets without a BAU scenario</strong>. International stakeholders and buyers of carbon credits want to be sure that the emissions reductions sold to them will be properly accounted for in the national system and that the NDC will still be achieved.</p></li><li><p>Unfortunately, <strong>Iraq&#8217;s first NDC in 2021 did not contain any BAU scenario at all</strong>. It genuinely puzzled the international community and UN organisations: how were they supposed to calculate the 1&#8211;2% reduction pledge? Against what baseline? And what did that 1&#8211;2% actually represent in numerical terms?</p></li><li><p>Some people claim that this ambiguity in the previous NDC target <strong>was a clever Iraqi &#8220;strategic tactic&#8221;</strong>. Strangely, <strong>no other country</strong> adopted such a &#8220;tactic&#8221;. It is hardly credible that 197 countries all pursued a &#8220;non-strategic&#8221; approach and only Iraq had a strategic one. At best, this reflects a confusion between negotiation tactics and what actually needs to happen on the ground.</p></li><li><p>Building on the BAU scenario, and on <strong>Iraqi technical and political consensus</strong>, Iraq&#8217;s emission-reduction pledges under the Paris Agreement were then defined, as shown in the figure below: a 3% reduction in Iraq&#8217;s emissions by 2030 (an increase of 1 percentage point compared to the previous pledge) and a 5% reduction by 2035 as unconditional contributions to achieving the Paris goals, plus a 17% reduction by 2035 as a conditional target, dependent on international finance or on the activation of carbon markets.</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fMT9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fMT9!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fMT9!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fMT9!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fMT9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fMT9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png" width="590" height="399.62666666666667" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/bd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:508,&quot;width&quot;:750,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:590,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fMT9!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fMT9!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fMT9!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fMT9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><ul><li><p><strong>The global model GCAM (Global Change Analysis Model), which is used by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)</strong>, was also applied to estimate, in detail, the cost of achieving these ambitious emission-reduction targets for Iraq in 2030 and 2035. The estimated cost is 1.7 billion US dollars for the unconditional 3% reduction by 2030, around 6 billion dollars for the unconditional 5% reduction by 2035, and 21 billion dollars for the conditional 17% reduction by 2035. The benefits of achieving the NDC targets must also be quantified in a separate implementation plan and in biennial transparency reports.</p></li><li><p>Because the updated 2025 NDC contains <strong>more detailed and robust scientific and technical content</strong> than the 2021 version, it represents a qualitative leap compared to the earlier NDC. <a href="https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/definitive-answers-to-wishful-thinking">In another article of mine</a> &#8211; I set out some of the shortcomings of the previous NDC, including the unrealistic finance target of 100 billion dollar</p></li></ul><h3>What does Iraq need in order to implement its NDC and secure international funding?</h3><ul><li><p>Frankly, Iraq cannot fully implement its NDC, with all its branches on mitigation, adaptation and loss and damage, nor can it secure the international finance it needs or effectively engage in carbon markets &#8211; all of which are technically and diplomatically complex &#8211; as long as there is no <strong>high-level body</strong> (above line ministries and public institutions) responsible for <strong>overseeing and driving NDC implementation</strong>.</p></li><li><p>The problem is that some ministries do not fully comply with instructions from the Ministry of Environment on climate change and the NDC. The Ministry of Environment <strong>may not have the legal authority</strong> over those ministries and institutions to ensure NDC implementation, and some may assume that the NDC is merely a document belonging to the Ministry of Environment, and therefore not something they need to take seriously.</p></li><li><p><strong>The Cabinet</strong> decision to adopt the NDC as a <strong>&#8220;national binding framework&#8221;</strong> for the country was an important starting point for implementing the NDC in Iraq in a way that serves the national interest and delivers economic benefits for the country.</p></li><li><p>On this basis, Iraq should establish an official, <strong>independent high-level body,</strong> <strong>ligislated by law</strong> in Parliament, focused on <strong>climate change and energy</strong>. This body would advise the government and monitor implementation of the NDC across all the themes and issues it contains.</p></li><li><p>It is worth noting that in 2008 the UK Parliament created an independent, statutory high-level body &#8211; <strong>the Climate Change Committee</strong> &#8211; as the government&#8217;s official legal adviser on climate change. It monitors progress towards the UK&#8217;s NDC targets in all sectors and advises the government on the policies needed to achieve them at the lowest possible cost and with the greatest benefit for both the state and citizens. I am also aware that the United Arab Emirates is considering creating a body or institution modelled on the UK Climate Change Committee.</p></li><li><p>I mention this because I have personally worked with the UK&#8217;s Climate Change Committee, leading the modelling of industrial-sector emissions and developing the necessary plans for the UK&#8217;s Seventh Carbon Budget (covering 2038&#8211;2042). This budget will be adopted by the UK government in mid-2026 and will become legally binding on the government and all relevant ministries and institutions.</p></li><li><p>In the end, I hope my country Iraq will see a renaissance worthy of its history and its people; that it chooses the path of <strong>strong institutions</strong> rather than <strong>ad hoc improvisation</strong>; that it anticipates risks and seizes opportunities; and that it protects the poor, our water resources and the economy from the high cost of delay.</p></li></ul><p><strong>Ahmed Gailani</strong> </p><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Thanks for reading Ahmed&#8217;s Substack! Subscribe for free to receive new posts and support my work.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[حكمة التغيير وفن التقدير في المساهمات المحددة وطنياً المحدثة للعراق]]></title><description><![CDATA[&#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577;&#1611;&#1548; &#1610;&#1585;&#1580;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1591;&#1604;&#1575;&#1593; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1580;&#1608;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1587;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1582;&#1610;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1577;: 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url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HT0i!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c3146e8-c0c2-46ad-b522-d935afbfeab1_1408x736.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>&#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577;&#1611;&#1548; &#1610;&#1585;&#1580;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1591;&#1604;&#1575;&#1593; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;: <a href="https://substack.com/home/post/p-175146636">&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1580;&#1608;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1587;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1582;&#1610;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1577;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;</a> &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607; &#1610;&#1608;&#1601;&#1585; &#1573;&#1580;&#1575;&#1576;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1574;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1575;&#1574;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1576;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1583;&#1583;.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HT0i!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c3146e8-c0c2-46ad-b522-d935afbfeab1_1408x736.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HT0i!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F7c3146e8-c0c2-46ad-b522-d935afbfeab1_1408x736.png 424w, 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h3><strong>&#1605;&#1575; &#1607;&#1610; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; NDC &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567;</strong></h3><ul><li><p>&#1607;&#1610; &#1582;&#1591;&#1577; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1610;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1603;&#1580;&#1586;&#1569; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1615;&#1604;&#1586;&#1605;&#1577; &#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;. &#1578;&#1608;&#1590;&#1617;&#1581; &#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1587;&#1610;&#1601;&#1593;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1576;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1617;&#1601; &#1605;&#1593; &#1570;&#1579;&#1575;&#1585; &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;. &#1608;&#1607;&#1610; &#1576;&#1605;&#1579;&#1575;&#1576;&#1577; <strong>&#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1591;&#1577; &#1591;&#1585;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577;</strong> &#1578;&#1615;&#1608;&#1580;&#1617;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1578;&#1615;&#1576;&#1585;&#1617;&#1585; &#1591;&#1604;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1615;&#1591;&#1605;&#1574;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1576;&#1571;&#1606; &#1604;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1585;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1580;&#1611;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1611;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1610;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604;&#1610;&#1611;&#1575;: &#1578;&#1615;&#1593;&#1578;&#1576;&#1585; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; <strong>&#1605;&#1585;&#1580;&#1593;&#1611;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1589;</strong> &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1610; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1608;&#1586; &#1605;&#1575; &#1605;&#1587;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577;! &#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; <strong>&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1582;&#1591;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578;</strong>. &#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1548; &#1604;&#1608; &#1605;&#1591;&#1604;&#1608;&#1576; &#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1590; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1571;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1634;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1548; &#1608;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1636;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606;&#1548; &#1601;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1588;&#1610;&#1569; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1578;&#1608;&#1580;&#1607; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1591;&#1604;&#1608;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1608;&#1578;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610;&#1607; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1589; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1581;&#1575;&#1589;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1593;&#1592;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1608;&#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1610;&#1606;. &#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1582;&#1591;&#1585; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1587;&#1605;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1601;&#1590;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1571;&#1579;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1575;&#1581;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1607;&#1608; &#1605;&#1606; &#1571;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;.</p></li><li><p>&#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580;&#1610;&#1611;&#1575;<strong>: &#1578;&#1615;&#1592;&#1607;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;</strong> &#1608;&#1578;&#1601;&#1578;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575;&#1576; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;.</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; (&#1589;&#1606;&#1583;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585;&#1548; &#1576;&#1606;&#1608;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606;&#1581;&#1608;&#1606;) <strong>&#1578;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1583; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1600;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577;</strong> &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; &#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;. &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577;&#1548; &#1610;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1593;&#1576; &#1580;&#1584;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1571;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1581;.</p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1601;&#1644; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1610;&#1593;&#1578;&#1576;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1607;&#1575;&#1605;&#1588;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1578;&#1576;&#1593; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577;</strong>&#1548; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1571;&#1594;&#1604;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1593;&#1578;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1580;&#1593; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;</strong> <strong>&#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1608;&#1605;&#1575; &#1605;&#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1610;&#1601;&#1608;&#1602; &#1571;&#1610; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1571;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609;</strong>&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1578;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1605;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1615;&#1604;&#1586;&#1605; &#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1605;&#1604;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577;. &#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1581;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1601;&#1585;&#1610; Net Zero &#1607;&#1608; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1585;&#1610;&#1591;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1606;&#1601;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1605;&#1615;&#1588;&#1585;&#1593; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1585;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606; &#1603;&#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1576;&#1607; &#1608;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1607; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577;! &#1608;&#1605;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1578;&#1608;&#1580;&#1607;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1581;&#1586;&#1575;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1577;!</p></li></ul><h3><strong>&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1580;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1574;&#1610;&#1587;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578;&#1567;</strong></h3><ul><li><p>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1582;&#1601;&#1609; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1571;&#1606; &#1571;&#1594;&#1604;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1602;&#1604; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1576;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1610;&#1608;&#1605;&#1610; &#1603;&#1580;&#1586;&#1569; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575;. &#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1581;&#1585;&#1602; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; &#1608;&#1571;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1581;&#1591;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1578;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1572;&#1583;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1608;&#1604;&#1583; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1601;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1578;&#1615;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583; &#1603;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1548; <strong>&#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; &#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577;</strong> &#1608;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575;&#1548; &#1601;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1580;&#1608;&#1586; &#1604;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1608;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1602;&#1589;&#1609; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1576;&#1607; &#1604;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1602;&#1583; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1604;&#1548; &#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1610;&#1581;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575; &#1575;&#1606; &#1606;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1605; &#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1608;&#1585;&#1583; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577;&#1548; &#1571;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1593;&#1576;&#1574;&#1575; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;&#1567;</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1607;&#1606;&#1575; &#1606;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1583;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; &#1610;&#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1587;&#1607;&#1604;&#1577; &#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1589;&#1604;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1569; &#1571;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1581; &#1608;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1610;&#1590;&#1605;&#1606;&#1607; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;. &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1601;&#1585;&#1590; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1578;&#1581;&#1605;&#1604; &#1571;&#1593;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580; &#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1587;&#1606;&#1585;&#1609; &#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611;.</p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1575;&#1606; &#1571;&#1594;&#1604;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1607;&#1610; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1608;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; Energy and Resource Efficiency &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1594;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575; &#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; <strong>&#1608;&#1607;&#1610; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1589;&#1604;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;</strong> &#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1608;&#1604;&#1608; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1576;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601; &#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1601;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1608; &#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1571;&#1593;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;. &#1575;&#1608; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1582;&#1578;&#1606;&#1575;&#1602;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1576;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1604; &#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1576;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583; &#1608;&#1603;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1577; &#1576;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1604;&#1579; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1591;&#1575;&#1578; &#1584;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1587;&#1610;&#1591;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1576;&#1577; &#1605;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1587;&#1607;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; &#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1578;&#1580;&#1607;&#1610;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1576;&#1606;&#1601;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1578; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1603;&#1571;&#1605;&#1585; &#1579;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1608;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1594;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1604;&#1583;&#1577;. &#1601;&#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1585;&#1580;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1584;&#1575;&#1578; &#1580;&#1583;&#1608;&#1609; &#1576;&#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1576;&#1606;&#1601;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1578;&#1548;<strong> &#1610;&#1615;&#1593;&#1578;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1571;&#1581;&#1583; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1578;&#1590;&#1585;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;</strong>&#1548; &#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1610;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1614; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1608;&#1603;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1586;&#1605;&#1577; &#1606;&#1578;&#1610;&#1580;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1615;&#1587;&#1576;&#1576;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1603;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1608;&#1575;&#1589;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1605;&#1608;&#1580;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1585;. <strong>&#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1591;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1603;&#1578;&#1608;&#1576;&#1577; &#1576;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1583;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1608;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;.</strong></p></li><li><p>&#1581;&#1589;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1581;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1576;&#1602;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577; <strong>&#1637;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610;</strong> &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1602;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1589;&#1606;&#1583;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591; &#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1593;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1604;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1608;&#1606;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1581;&#1575;&#1601;&#1592;&#1575;&#1578;&#1606;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1606;&#1608;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1608; &#1578;&#1591;&#1585;&#1602;&#1606;&#1575; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1610;&#1581;&#1589;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1580;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1576;&#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585;.</strong></p></li><li><p>&#1578;&#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1585;&#1576;&#1581; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1594;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1585;&#1576;&#1581; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;.</p></li><li><p>&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1608; &#1604;&#1605; &#1578;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1567; &#1587;&#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1587;&#1610;&#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1610;&#1615;&#1593;&#1578;&#1576;&#1585; &#1606;&#1592;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1605;&#1593; &#1593;&#1586;&#1604;&#1577; &#1578;&#1606;&#1592;&#1610;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1607;&#1575;&#1574;&#1604;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1601;&#1585;&#1590; &#1579;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1583;&#1608;&#1583;.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1606;&#1575; &#1608;&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576;&#1567;! </h3><ul><li><p>&#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1587; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1606;&#1587;&#1581;&#1576;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606; &#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;</strong>&#1644; &#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1615;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1567; &#1608;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; <strong>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1594;&#1604; &#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1601; &#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576;</strong> &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1605;&#1606;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1583;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1601;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567; &#1608;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1594;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1604;&#1583;&#1593;&#1605; &#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;. </p></li><li><p>&#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1603;&#1604; &#1588;&#1610;&#1569;&#1548; <strong>&#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1633;&#1634;&#1634; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1571;&#1589;&#1604; &#1633;&#1641;&#1640;</strong> &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1602;&#1583;&#1605;&#1578; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1602;&#1591;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1603;&#1587;&#1610;&#1603; &#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1576;&#1608;&#1610; &#8230; </strong>&#1601;&#1590;&#1604;&#1575; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1606;&#1583;</strong> &#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1607;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1583;&#1605;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1593; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1594;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; </strong>&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1605; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577; (&#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1602;&#1583;&#1605;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;). </p></li><li><p>&#1579;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; <strong>&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1603;&#1587; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605; &#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576; </strong>&#1604;&#1586;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1608;&#1585; &#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1575;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1610; &#1587;&#1610;&#1588;&#1607;&#1583; <strong>&#1578;&#1582;&#1605;&#1577; &#1570;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1585;&#1608;&#1590;</strong> &#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606; &#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577; &#1587;&#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1585;&#1575;&#1580;&#1607; &#1576;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1577; Drill baby drill &#1608;&#1573;&#1583;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1610; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1575; &#1576;&#1583;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1607;&#1604;&#1575;&#1603; &#1606;&#1601;&#1608;&#1591; &#1571;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1608;&#1602;. &#1601;&#1590;&#1604;&#1575; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1590;&#1594;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610; &#1605;&#1606; &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1608;&#1576;&#1603; &#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1587;&#1593;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1608;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1585;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606; <strong>&#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1602;&#1604; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1576;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605; &#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576; &#1604;&#1604;&#1587;&#1604;&#1591;&#1577;</strong> &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1610;&#1615;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; <strong>&#1638;&#1634; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1576;&#1585;&#1605;&#1610;&#1604;</strong> &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; <strong>&#1590;&#1594;&#1591; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1586;&#1606;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1577; &#1576;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;.</strong> </p></li><li><p>&#1610;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1583;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; <strong>&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1583;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1589;&#1610;&#1585;</strong> &#1585;&#1610;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1615;&#1580;&#1585;&#1610; &#1575;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;&#1607; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1593; &#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1604; &#1608;&#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1603;&#1605;&#1589;&#1583;&#1585; &#1608;&#1581;&#1610;&#1583; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1604;. &#1608;&#1607;&#1576;&#1608;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1593;&#1575;&#1585; &#1576;&#1587;&#1576;&#1576; &#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576; &#1608;&#1590;&#1594;&#1591;&#1607; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610; &#1608;&#1590;&#1593; &#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1581; &#1605;&#1593; &#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1586;&#1606;&#1578;&#1607;. &#1601;&#1590;&#1585;&#1585; &#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; (&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1589;&#1610;&#1585;) <strong>&#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1601;&#1593;&#1607;</strong> &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583;! </p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1604;&#1608; &#1571;&#1606; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1590;&#1593; &#1590;&#1594;&#1591;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1587;&#1593;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1582;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1571;&#1579;&#1585;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610; &#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1585;&#1575;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1576;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607;.</p></li><li><p>&#1579;&#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; <strong>&#1602;&#1591;&#1585; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1594;&#1575;&#1586;&#1610; &#1610;&#1605;&#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1579;&#1575;&#1604;&#1579; &#1575;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1581;&#1578;&#1610;&#1575;&#1591;&#1610; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1644;</strong> &#1608;&#1607;&#1575; &#1607;&#1610; <strong>&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1578;</strong> &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1604; &#1578;&#1587;&#1593;&#1609; &#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1578;&#1593;&#1607;&#1583;&#1578; &#1576;<strong>&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1610; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1576;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1633;&#1641; &#1576;&#1605;&#1602;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585; &#1636;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574;</strong> &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; ! &#1601;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1602;&#1591;&#1585; &#1604;&#1605; &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1601; &#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576;&#1567;! </p></li><li><p>&#1585;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; <strong>&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590;&#1575;&#1578; &#1602;&#1605;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1601; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1590;&#1585;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576;</strong>&#8230; &#1601;&#1607;&#1604; &#1571;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606;&#1587;&#1581;&#1575;&#1576; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1575; &#1604;&#1573;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1569; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601;  &#1634;&#1640; &#1601;&#1610; &#1583;&#1576;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1585;&#1608;&#1601; &#1576; Transition Away from Fossil Fuels&#1567; &#1604;&#1575; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1615;&#1604;&#1594; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;. </p></li><li><p>&#1582;&#1575;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1606;&#1581;&#1606; &#1606;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579; &#1593;&#1606; &#1608;&#1590;&#1593; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; <strong>&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637;</strong> &#1603;&#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1591;&#1577; &#1591;&#1585;&#1610;&#1602; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1607;&#1610; <strong>&#1571;&#1576;&#1593;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1576;&#1602;&#1575;&#1569; &#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576;</strong> &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1604;&#1591;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1607;&#1610; &#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1641;. </p></li><li><p>&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1615;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1593;&#1604;&#1608;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1571;&#1608;&#1587;&#1593; &#1608;&#1571;&#1588;&#1605;&#1604; &#1576;&#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;</strong> &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1591;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1567; &#1601;&#1607;&#1604; &#1587;&#1610;&#1593;&#1591;&#1610; &#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1586;&#1605; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1593;&#1608;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1606; &#1589;&#1606;&#1583;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1567;</p></li><li><p>&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1611;&#1644; &#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; <strong>&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;</strong> &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1576;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1644; &#1601;&#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1605; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1608;&#1610; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1590;&#1585;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1608;&#1604; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;. &#1601;&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1594;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1570;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1604;&#1605; &#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577;&#8230; &#1601;&#1607;&#1604; &#1587;&#1610;&#1587;&#1575;&#1593;&#1583;&#1606;&#1575; &#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576; &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567; </p></li><li><p>&#1579;&#1605; &#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1606;&#1575; &#1608;&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1605;&#1576;&#1567; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606; &#1585;&#1572;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1580;&#1575;&#1605;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1576;&#1587;&#1576;&#1576; &#1578;&#1571;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580;&#1610;. </p></li></ul><h3><strong>&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1578;&#1615;&#1593;&#1583; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1637; &#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633;&#1567;</strong></h3><ul><li><p>&#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1607;&#1610; <strong>&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1610;&#1575;&#1577; &#1571;&#1606; &#1606;&#1578;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1582;&#1591;&#1575;&#1574;&#1606;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1577;</strong> &#1601;&#1604;&#1575; &#1590;&#1610;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1601;&#1605;&#1593; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1605;&#1606; &#1608;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1603;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1591;&#1608;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1586;&#1582;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1548; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593;&#1610; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1637; &#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633;</p></li><li><p>&#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1601;&#1589;&#1604; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; Mitigation&#1548; <strong>&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1601;&#1602; &#1571;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1575;&#1610;&#1610;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1605;&#1584;&#1580;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577;</strong> &#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1606;&#1575;&#1587;&#1576; &#1605;&#1593; &#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1608;&#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1582; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;.</p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1548; &#1578;&#1605; &#1608;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1604; &#1605;&#1585;&#1577; &#1606;&#1605;&#1584;&#1580;&#1577; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; Business-as-usual <strong>&#1608;&#1601;&#1602; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1583;&#1574; &#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581;&#1577;</strong> &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1601;&#1585; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1632;-&#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633; &#1608;&#1578;&#1602;&#1585;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1601;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577;BTR &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1610;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; <strong>&#1575;&#1606;&#1591;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577;</strong> &#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578;.</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1583;&#1606;&#1575;&#1607; &#1610;&#1608;&#1590;&#1581; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1588;&#1578;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; (&#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1575;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1575;&#1590;&#1610;) &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1578;&#1589;&#1606;&#1610;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;IPCC &#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1591;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1632; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1610;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1639;&#1637;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1590;&#1581; &#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1576;&#1594;&#1610;&#1575;&#1576; &#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1605;&#1593; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1593;&#1583;&#1583; &#1587;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; (&#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1607;&#1604;&#1575;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;) &#1601;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1602;&#1583; &#1578;&#1589;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1635;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574; &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637;.</p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1583;&#1606;&#1575;&#1607; (&#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;)&#1548; <strong>&#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1605;&#1584;&#1580;&#1577; &#1578;&#1601;&#1589;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;</strong> &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1593; &#1584;&#1585;&#1608;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1604;&#1576; &#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1548; &#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1593; &#1593;&#1583;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1602;&#1604;&#1548; &#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1593; &#1605;&#1593;&#1583;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1548; &#1578;&#1590;&#1605;&#1610;&#1606; &#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577;&#1548; &#1578;&#1590;&#1605;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1580;&#1586;&#1577; &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1637;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1593; &#1593;&#1583;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1605;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1580;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1615;&#1593;&#1578;&#1576;&#1585; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1573;&#1606;&#1580;&#1575;&#1586;&#1607; &#1601;&#1610; &#1610;&#1608;&#1605; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604;&#1577; &#1576;&#1604; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1589; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1605;&#1584;&#1580;&#1577;.</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17Y2!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!17Y2!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac21f2f1-065a-48e8-ba82-6c244ec45ec4_758x506.png 424w, 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y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><ul><li><p>&#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1548; <strong>&#1604;&#1606; &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;</strong> &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;&#1606;&#1575; &#1605;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601;&#1577; &#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1605;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1605;&#1575; &#1602;&#1583; &#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611;.</p></li><li><p> &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; <strong>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1548; </strong>&#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1608;&#1606; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1571;&#1603;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1578;&#1605; &#1576;&#1610;&#1593;&#1607; &#1587;&#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1578;&#1593;&#1608;&#1610;&#1590;&#1607; &#1601;&#1610; &#1606;&#1592;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1587;&#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;. </p></li><li><p> &#1604;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1601;&#1548; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1609; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; <strong>&#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1571;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;</strong>&#1548; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1593;&#1604; &#1581;&#1610;&#1585;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1608;&#1605;&#1606;&#1592;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1603;&#1610;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1633;-&#1634;&#1642; &#1603;&#1578;&#1593;&#1607;&#1583; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;! &#1608;&#1603;&#1605; &#1578;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1603;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1633;-&#1634;&#1642;</p></li><li><p>&#1579;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1587; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; <strong>&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1605;&#1608;&#1590; &#1601;&#1610; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602; &#1607;&#1608; &#1578;&#1603;&#1578;&#1610;&#1603; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610; &#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1584;&#1603;&#1610;</strong> &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1610;&#1576; &#1575;&#1606;&#1607; <strong>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1571;&#1610; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1575;&#1582;&#1585; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1578;&#1610;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;</strong>! &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1605;&#1606; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1633;&#1641;&#1639; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1603;&#1578;&#1610;&#1603; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610; &#1608;&#1601;&#1602;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607; &#1578;&#1603;&#1578;&#1610;&#1603; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;. &#1608;&#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607; &#1582;&#1604;&#1591; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1576;&#1610;&#1606; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1585;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;. </p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1608;<strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1580;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1606;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;</strong>&#1548; &#1578;&#1605; &#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; &#1578;&#1593;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1575;&#1581;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1583;&#1606;&#1575;&#1607; &#1576;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1635;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; (&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1576;&#1605;&#1602;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585; &#1633;&#1642; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1577;) &#1608;&#1637;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637; &#1603;&#1578;&#1593;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1608;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1633;&#1639;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637; &#1603;&#1578;&#1593;&#1607;&#1583; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1608; &#1605;&#1606; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;.</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fMT9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!fMT9!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fbd3ac0fe-d4b9-49b2-b1c3-84ea0e4bc1be_750x508.png 424w, 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stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><ul><li><p>&#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1605;&#1608;&#1584;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610; <strong>Global Change Analysis Model(GCAM)</strong> &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605; &#1605;&#1606; &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; <strong>IPCC</strong> &#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1590; &#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1578;&#1601;&#1589;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1608;&#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1578;&#1605; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575; &#1576;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593; &#1633;.&#1639; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1604;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1635;&#1642; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1608;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1638; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1604;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1637;&#1642; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637; &#1608;&#1634;&#1633; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1604;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1633;&#1639;&#1642; &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637;. <strong>&#1610;&#1615;&#1584;&#1603;&#1585; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577;</strong> &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1582;&#1591;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1601;&#1589;&#1604;&#1577; &#1608;&#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1601;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1578;&#1610;&#1606;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1637; <strong>&#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1608;&#1610; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1589;&#1610;&#1604; &#1601;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1571;&#1608;&#1587;&#1593; &#1608;&#1571;&#1593;&#1605;&#1602;</strong> &#1605;&#1606; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633; &#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605;&#1548; &#1601;&#1575;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; <strong>&#1591;&#1601;&#1585;&#1577; &#1606;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577;</strong> &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1576;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633;. &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1601;&#1589;&#1604;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1575;&#1582;&#1584;&#1575;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1577;: <a href="https://substack.com/home/post/p-175146636">&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1580;&#1608;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1587;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1582;&#1610;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1577;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;</a> &#1608;&#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; <strong>&#1607;&#1583;&#1601;</strong> <strong>&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;&#1610; &#1576;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;.</strong></p></li></ul><h3><strong>&#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1610;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;&#1567;</strong></h3><ul><li><p> &#1576;&#1603;&#1604; &#1589;&#1585;&#1575;&#1581;&#1577;&#1548; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1608;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1593; &#1603;&#1604; &#1578;&#1588;&#1593;&#1576;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1602;&#1590;&#1575;&#1610;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1590;&#1585;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#8211; &#1608;&#1607;&#1610; &#1571;&#1605;&#1608;&#1585; &#1605;&#1593;&#1602;&#1583;&#1577; &#1601;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1583;&#1576;&#1604;&#1608;&#1605;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575; &#8211;&#1591;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1580;&#1607;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575; (&#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578;) &#1578;&#1578;&#1608;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p> &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1606; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; <strong>&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1605; &#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1585;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577;</strong> &#1576;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1585;&#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1605;&#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1604;&#1591;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1608;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; <strong>&#1608;&#1585;&#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1592;&#1606; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1578;&#1578;&#1576;&#1593; &#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577;</strong> &#1601;&#1604;&#1575; &#1583;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610; &#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584;&#1607;&#1575;.</p></li><li><p>&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1605;&#1580;&#1604;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1604;&#1575;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1603;&#8221;<strong>&#1575;&#1591;&#1575;&#1585; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1605;&#1604;&#1586;&#1605;</strong>&#8220; &#1604;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1607;&#1608; &#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1591;&#1585;&#1610;&#1602; &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1608;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1589;&#1604;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; <strong>&#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1607;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575; &#1585;&#1587;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1577; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1593;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1585;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606; &#1576;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577;</strong> &#1578;&#1606;&#1589;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585; &#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1601;&#1610; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1607;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1608;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575;.</p></li><li><p>&#1610;&#1615;&#1584;&#1603;&#1585; &#1575;&#1606; &#1576;&#1585;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1605;&#1604;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577; &#1571;&#1606;&#1588;&#1571; &#1601;&#1610; &#1634;&#1632;&#1632;&#1640; &#1607;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575; &#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1577; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1587;&#1605;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1577; &#1576;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1578;&#1615;&#1583;&#1593;&#1609; <strong>&#1607;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; Climate Change Committee</strong> &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1605; &#1576;&#1605;&#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1605;&#1604;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1606;&#1589;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1576;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1583;&#1583; &#1604;&#1590;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606; &#1571;&#1602;&#1604; &#1578;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1606;&#1601;&#1593;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1591;&#1606;. &#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1576;&#1589;&#1583;&#1583; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1607;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1594;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1607;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1585;&#1610;&#1591;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1571;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1578; &#1576;&#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1610; &#1605;&#1593; &#1607;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1585;&#1610;&#1591;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1606;&#1605;&#1584;&#1580;&#1577; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610; &#1608;&#1608;&#1590;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1591;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1586;&#1605;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1610;&#1586;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577; &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1640;-&#1634;&#1632;&#1636;&#1634; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1587;&#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1573;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1576;&#1608;&#1604; &#1576;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1585;&#1610;&#1591;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1606;&#1578;&#1589;&#1601; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1638; &#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1604;&#1586;&#1605;&#1577; &#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1604;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1584;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1604;&#1577;.</p></li></ul><p>&#1608;&#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1571;&#1578;&#1605;&#1606;&#1609; &#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1606;&#1607;&#1590;&#1577; &#1578;&#1604;&#1610;&#1602; &#1576;&#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1582;&#1607; &#1608;&#1571;&#1607;&#1604;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1610;&#1576;&#1610;&#1606;&#1548; <strong>&#1608;&#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1582;&#1578;&#1575;&#1585; &#1591;&#1585;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1617;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1580;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578;</strong>&#1548; &#1601;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1576;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1585; &#1608;&#1610;&#1602;&#1578;&#1606;&#1589; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1585;&#1589;&#1548; &#1608;&#1610;&#1581;&#1605;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1607; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1571;&#1582;&#1617;&#1585;.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dfBV!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02d4e433-298c-4166-921a-70b9372f6f9f_2816x1536.jpeg" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dfBV!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02d4e433-298c-4166-921a-70b9372f6f9f_2816x1536.jpeg 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dfBV!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02d4e433-298c-4166-921a-70b9372f6f9f_2816x1536.jpeg 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dfBV!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02d4e433-298c-4166-921a-70b9372f6f9f_2816x1536.jpeg 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dfBV!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02d4e433-298c-4166-921a-70b9372f6f9f_2816x1536.jpeg 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!dfBV!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F02d4e433-298c-4166-921a-70b9372f6f9f_2816x1536.jpeg" width="354" height="193.0467032967033" 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Subscribe for free to receive new posts and support my work.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Definitive Answers to Wishful Thinking: Iraq and the Paris Agreement]]></title><description><![CDATA[In this article, I try to answer a set of questions and misconceptions that I&#8217;ve seen circulating among some policymakers and the wider public in Iraq about climate change and the Paris Agreement.]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/definitive-answers-to-wishful-thinking</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/definitive-answers-to-wishful-thinking</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 16 Nov 2025 22:15:04 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0zg9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>In this article, I try to answer a set of questions and misconceptions that I&#8217;ve seen circulating among some policymakers and the wider public in Iraq about climate change and the Paris Agreement. I list some of the common claims and questions, and then try to unpack and correct them.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0zg9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0zg9!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0zg9!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0zg9!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0zg9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0zg9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png" width="536" height="357.45604395604397" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:971,&quot;width&quot;:1456,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:536,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:false,&quot;topImage&quot;:true,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0zg9!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0zg9!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0zg9!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0zg9!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><p>The questions and ideas are:</p><ul><li><p>Is climate change a lie or just nonsense?</p></li><li><p>Iraq is an oil country; its economy depends on oil and it must not &#8220;destroy&#8221; its oil industry by joining climate agreements.</p></li><li><p>Iraq&#8217;s emissions are less than 1% of global emissions, so it isn&#8217;t responsible for climate change &#8211; the historic responsibility lies with big industrial polluters.</p></li><li><p>The Paris Agreement is purely voluntary and not legally binding.</p></li><li><p>Why is Iraq increasing its emissions-reduction ambition in its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and burdening the state budget?</p></li><li><p>Why didn&#8217;t Iraq receive the <strong>USD 100 billion</strong> in international finance it wrote in its 2021 NDC?</p></li><li><p>Why are NDCs seen as such a key strategic document, especially in Western countries? And why have they not received much attention in Iraq?</p></li><li><p>What is the philosophy and vision of Western countries for achieving the Paris Agreement goals?</p></li><li><p>Why doesn&#8217;t Iraq just sell emission reductions on carbon markets instead of raising ambition in its NDCs?</p></li><li><p>Does increasing mitigation ambition in the NDC mean more finance for Iraq?</p></li><li><p>What does &#8220;USD 100 billion&#8221; mean when people talk about the size of Iraq&#8217;s green economy? Is it the same number mentioned in the older NDC?</p></li><li><p>Why is the &#8220;baseline scenario&#8221; the most important element of an NDC?</p></li><li><p>Are carbon credits really a substitute for oil? Is the General Company for Economics of Carbon &#8220;the new SOMO&#8221;?</p></li><li><p>What does Iraq actually need to enter carbon markets?</p></li><li><p>The new global climate finance goal (NCQG) agreed at COP29 in Baku&#8212;USD 300 billion per year&#8212;is too small!</p></li></ul><p>Let&#8217;s begin.</p><h3>1. Is climate change a hoax or just nonsense?</h3><p>If you think climate change is a hoax, you&#8217;re in the wrong place for several reasons.</p><ul><li><p>There are at least <strong><a href="https://fossilfueltreaty.org/nobel-letter">101 Nobel laureates</a></strong> who say that climate change is scientifically established. Are we supposed to dismiss all of them? We take science from scientists, not from random opinions without evidence. So the real question is: do you have even a single peer-reviewed paper published in an international journal on climate change that backs your claim?</p></li><li><p>These laureates have signed a public statement, with their photos and fields of expertise listed. Among them: 14 Nobel Peace Prize laureates, 27 in Chemistry, 6 in Economics, 2 in Literature, 30 in Medicine, and 22 in Physics. And remember: a Nobel Prize comes with around one million dollars prize. These people are not desperate for money, nor for fame; they are already &#8220;more famous than fire on a hilltop,&#8221; as the Arabic saying goes.</p></li><li><p>If you believe you know more than they do, go ahead: write your paper, refute their arguments with solid, measurable scientific evidence before the international community. Anything else is just noise and claims that do not rise to the level of serious scientific debate.</p></li><li><p>Think of it this way: if your child falls seriously ill, do you insist on treating them yourself&#8212;or do you rush to a qualified doctor? Climate science works the same way: you defer to experts. Look, for example, at scientists like <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=5uvTUloAAAAJ&amp;hl=en">Piers Forster</a>, or Nobel laureate in Economics <a href="https://economics.yale.edu/people/william-nordhaus">William Nordhaus</a>.</p></li></ul><h3>2. Iraq is an oil country; its economy depends on oil, so it shouldn&#8217;t &#8220;destroy&#8221; its oil sector by joining climate agreements</h3><ul><li><p>Being outside the Paris Agreement means financial and regulatory isolation in a world that is increasingly putting a price on carbon at borders and rewarding methane reductions and gas flaring abatement. It is better to be inside the game than outside it. Being outside will not stop climate-negotiation decisions on fossil fuels, including oil.</p></li><li><p>Even when the United States withdrew from the Paris Agreement for a period, it did not stop the global shift towards clean energy. Conferences continued, decisions continued, and the energy transition continued&#8212;with or without the US. So how could Iraq, with far less global weight, expect to &#8220;stop&#8221; that transition by staying out?</p></li><li><p>In fact, solar capacity in the US has kept expanding because it&#8217;s cheap, and Iraq itself has started installing solar in Karbala and Basra. This would not have happened without climate policies and international finance driving clean technologies that reduce fossil fuel use anyway.</p></li><li><p>Iraq is also among the countries most vulnerable to climate impacts. The Paris Agreement doesn&#8217;t only have a mitigation (emissions reduction) pillar; it also includes adaptation and loss and damage &#8212; areas Iraq desperately needs support in.</p></li><li><p>Being outside the Agreement means you cannot benefit from its finance mechanisms, such as the Green Climate Fund, which recently approved USD 40 million for Iraq&#8217;s agriculture sector.</p></li><li><p>And as the proverb roughly goes: &#8220;sticking with the group is a blessing.&#8221; You are in the Agreement alongside Saudi Arabia, Oman, UAE, Qatar, Egypt, Jordan, Turkey, Yemen, Syria, Kuwait&#8212;all Arab states have joined. Do you really think they all misunderstand their interests?</p></li></ul><h3>3. Iraq&#8217;s emissions are less than 1% of global emissions, so it isn&#8217;t responsible for climate change; big industrial countries are</h3><ul><li><p>This is precisely one of the reasons Iraq should stay inside the Agreement and use that argument to claim its fair share of support, given its low historical responsibility.</p></li><li><p>Over 100 other countries can also say their emissions are under 1%. <a href="https://substack.com/home/post/p-174284732">Check my other article</a> for where Iraq sits in terms of the world&#8217;s remaining carbon budget.</p></li><li><p>The Paris Agreement was not built on blaming or shaming. It&#8217;s based on &#8220;common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities&#8221; (CBDR-RC).</p></li><li><p>A deep understanding of the Agreement and its decisions, plus building a high-level negotiation team (like the Saudi delegation, for example), is the only way to protect Iraq&#8217;s interests, ensure major emitters carry their responsibilities, and build diplomatic relationships to unlock finance that can lift Iraq&#8217;s economy.</p></li></ul><h3>4. The Paris Agreement is voluntary and not legally binding</h3><ul><li><p>Yes, joining the Paris Agreement is voluntary. No one can force a country to join.</p></li><li><p>But when the Agreement was negotiated, the world agreed on a bottom-up model: each country proposes its own contribution toward the shared global goal, under the CBDR-RC principle.</p></li><li><p>Once Iraq voluntarily joined, it signalled acceptance of the Agreement&#8217;s goals and principles. If Iraq doesn&#8217;t believe in the core objective&#8212;protecting the planet from dangerous warming&#8212;why did it sign and ratify it, and publish it in the Official Gazette after parliamentary approval? Why not withdraw instead?</p></li><li><p>Iraq actually has one of the earliest &#8220;environmental&#8221; treaties in history: the Treaty of King Mesilim, around 2600 BCE, which regulated water between the city-states of Umma and Lagash in Mesopotamia. From that historical perspective, who is more entitled than Iraq to help protect the planet from climate change?</p></li><li><p>Iraq cannot say, &#8220;The Agreement is voluntary, so every clause is optional for me. I&#8217;ll take what benefits me and ignore what doesn&#8217;t.&#8221; That is extremely na&#239;ve logic. What applies to the whole does not automatically apply to each part, and vice versa. You can&#8217;t say, &#8220;This house is light because it&#8217;s made of bricks, and bricks are light.&#8221;</p></li><li><p>There are serious negative consequences if Iraq fails to implement the Agreement: diplomatic costs, and difficulty accessing climate finance&#8212;especially for adaptation and loss and damage, which Iraq badly needs.</p></li><li><p>We should look at the Agreement as economically beneficial for Iraq by comparing the benefits (how much finance we can obtain, how much we can gain from carbon markets and technology transfer) against the costs (if any).</p></li></ul><h3>5.Why is Iraq increasing its emissions-reduction ambition in its NDCs and &#8220;burdening&#8221; the state budget?</h3><ul><li><p>First, Iraq is only doing what the Agreement requires: every five years, all Parties must increase ambition through updated NDCs. If no one increases ambition, what is the point of having a global goal?</p></li><li><p>Iraq cannot simply say, &#8220;We won&#8217;t raise ambition.&#8221; That would be a de facto admission that it has stepped away from the Agreement. So we are back to the same question: is the Agreement beneficial or not? If you think it&#8217;s useless and you won&#8217;t comply, why remain a signatory as a fa&#231;ade?</p></li><li><p>Article 4.3 of the Agreement explicitly says:</p></li></ul><blockquote><p>&#8220;Each Party&#8217;s successive nationally determined contribution will represent a progression beyond the Party&#8217;s then current nationally determined contribution and reflect its highest possible ambition, reflecting its common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities, in the light of different national circumstances.&#8221;</p></blockquote><ul><li><p>In reality, Iraq is not <em>reducing</em> emissions in absolute terms. Increasing &#8220;ambition&#8221; means reducing the <em>rate of growth</em> of emissions, not cutting total emissions below today&#8217;s levels. Iraq reduces emissions <em>relative to a baseline scenario</em>, which is allowed for developing countries.</p></li><li><p>Example:<br>According to Iraq&#8217;s national GHG inventory, total emissions in 2021 were 203 million tonnes CO&#8322;-equivalent. In the old 2021 NDC, Iraq pledged an unconditional reduction of 1&#8211;2%. But that 1&#8211;2% is measured against baseline emissions in 2030.</p></li><li><p>If the baseline emissions for 2030 are projected to be 270 million tonnes, then a 2% reduction means:</p><p>2% of 270 = 5.4 million tonnes</p><p>So &#8220;reduced&#8221; emissions in 2030 = 270 &#8211; 5.4 = 264.6 million tonnes.</p></li><li><p>As long as Iraq&#8217;s actual emissions in 2030 are 264.6 million tonnes or less, it has technically met its 1&#8211;2% NDC target&#8212;even though 264.6 is <em>higher</em> than 2021&#8217;s 203 million tonnes. In other words, emissions in 2030 can be higher than today, and Iraq is still considered to have met its NDC.</p></li><li><p>So &#8220;reduction&#8221; here simply means slowing the increase rate, not making emissions fall below today&#8217;s level.</p></li><li><p>Some might ask: what about the Oil Ministry&#8217;s projects to eliminate gas flaring (zero flaring)? Yes, those are emissions-reduction projects&#8212;but what matters is the <em>total</em> national emissions across <em>all</em> sectors, not just oil. If we reduce emissions in oil and gas but then open 20 new cement plants and 200 new brick factories, those extra emissions must also be counted. The increase elsewhere can wipe out the reductions in one sector.</p></li><li><p>Raising ambition does not automatically burden the state budget, because Iraq does not implement projects <em>purely</em> to cut emissions. Projects are done for economic or social reasons, regardless of emissions.</p></li><li><p>For example, the Karbala solar project is a clean-energy project, but it was built primarily because solar power is cheap and the project is commercially viable&#8212;not because of the Paris Agreement. Emissions reductions are a side benefit. There is nothing wrong with that, but it is important to call things by their real names.</p></li></ul><h3>6. Why didn&#8217;t Iraq receive the USD 100 billion it wrote in its 2021 NDC?</h3><ul><li><p>In the 2021 NDC, Iraq stated that in exchange for a 13% reduction in emissions over 2021&#8211;2030, it wanted <strong>USD 100 billion</strong> in international support.</p></li><li><p>It must be stressed: this number did not come from proper modelling of Iraq&#8217;s sectors (likely due to lack of data at the time), nor from a serious study or cost analysis. It was essentially an arbitrary number.</p></li><li><p>Assume again that Iraq&#8217;s 2030 emissions baseline is 270 million tonnes CO&#8322;-eq. A 13% reduction equals 35 million tonnes. That means Iraq effectively asked for USD 100 billion in return for a <em>non-actual</em> reduction of 35 million tonnes (non-actual because total emissions would still be rising).</p></li><li><p>That implies a cost of:</p><p>100 billion / 35 million tonnes &#8776; <strong>USD 2,857 per tonne</strong> of &#8220;reduced&#8221; CO&#8322;-eq.</p></li><li><p>This is the highest implied cost per tonne you will find anywhere. There is no project on Earth&#8212;let alone on Mars&#8212;that would cost that much per tonne.</p></li><li><p>In the best compliance carbon markets in the world (like the EU ETS), a <em>genuine</em> tonne of reduced CO&#8322; does not exceed around USD 100 per tonne. In other markets, prices are even lower&#8212;10&#8211;20 USD per tonne. On what basis would Iraq demand USD 2,857 per tonne?</p></li><li><p>That is about 28 times higher than a typical global price. It&#8217;s like asking to be paid for a tonne of gold, not a tonne of avoided CO&#8322;.</p></li><li><p>The international community can fund that USD 100 billion in much poorer countries and achieve <em><strong>hundreds of times</strong></em><strong> more</strong> emissions reductions. Carbon abatement is &#8220;elastic&#8221;: it&#8217;s often cheaper to cut emissions elsewhere.</p></li><li><p>What Iraq asked for would be equivalent to one full year of the <em>entire</em> global climate finance goal (NCQG) for all 109 developing countries combined. That is clearly unrealistic.</p></li><li><p>If that USD 100 billion had been framed as the total cost of Iraq&#8217;s entire energy transition&#8212;for example, converting <em>all</em> power plants to clean energy&#8212;then perhaps it could have been analysed and discussed seriously. But it was written as the cost of only a 13% reduction, and not even a real absolute reduction, since emissions keep rising.</p></li><li><p>Western countries, although they have not fully delivered on their climate finance promises, are not so na&#239;ve as to pay USD 100 billion for a 13% reduction in Iraq&#8217;s emissions under these conditions.</p></li></ul><h3>7. Why are NDCs the most important strategic documents for many countries, especially in the West? And why are they neglected in Iraq?</h3><ul><li><p><strong>Domestically:</strong> The NDC is a reference point for government, ministries, and the private sector to design climate-related policies and investments. No ministry can legitimately adopt plans that contradict what is allowed or required by the NDC. It shapes all investment and planning decisions.</p></li><li><p>For example, if a country&#8217;s NDC requires the power sector to reduce emissions to 20 million tonnes CO&#8322;-eq while current emissions are 40 million, that is <em>hugely</em> important: it implies concrete investments must be made. Failure to act threatens the country&#8217;s reputation and credibility.</p></li><li><p><strong>Externally:</strong> The NDC signals the country&#8217;s commitment to the international community and helps unlock climate finance and green investments.</p></li><li><p>An NDC is not just a list of emissions numbers. It includes plans for sustainable development, renewable energy, energy efficiency, waste management, sustainable agriculture, and more. It aligns ministries and agencies behind a common vision.</p></li><li><p>International institutions (the Green Climate Fund, development banks, donors) rely on a country&#8217;s NDC to prioritise which projects to finance. Without a clear NDC, it is harder to attract grants and investments.</p></li><li><p>Civil society, researchers, and parliaments can also use the NDC to hold government accountable: is the state doing what it promised? This strengthens transparency and builds trust with citizens and international partners.</p></li><li><p>Climate change affects water, food, health, and energy. Through the NDC, a country lays out its plans for reducing risks and protecting its economy and society.</p></li><li><p>So why has the NDC received so little attention in Iraq? Because many people, including some stakeholders, think it is merely a &#8220;Ministry of Environment document&#8221;&#8212;and that ministry has historically not been given the importance it deserves.</p></li></ul><h3>8. What is the philosophy and vision of Western countries for achieving the Paris goals?</h3><ul><li><p>Western countries are fully aware that many states&#8212;including China and many developing countries&#8212;do not always treat climate change with utmost urgency. Their philosophy is to prioritise mitigation (emissions reduction) over adaptation and loss and damage, because:</p><p>More mitigation &#8594; less adaptation needed</p><p>Less adaptation needed &#8594; lower loss and damage costs.</p></li><li><p>As a result, most international climate finance has gone to mitigation. Funding for adaptation and loss and damage remains scarce. This is indeed a flaw&#8212;but it is the reality we must deal with.</p></li><li><p>Because of this focus and the continuous push to advance clean technologies&#8212;solar, batteries, wind, nuclear, etc.&#8212;it has now become economically attractive for many developing countries to deploy these technologies. In many cases, clean energy is now cost-competitive, or even cheaper, than traditional fossil-based options.</p></li><li><p>This is why China is now the global leader in renewable energy and batteries, followed by countries like the UAE and several African states, in addition to Western nations. Global investment in clean energy has surpassed investment in fossil fuels.</p></li></ul><h3><strong>9. Why doesn&#8217;t Iraq just sell emission reductions on carbon markets instead of increasing ambition in its NDC?</strong></h3><ul><li><p>Most projects currently implemented in Iraq are energy and resource efficiency projects, which, by default, also reduce emissions. These projects are primarily in Iraq&#8217;s best <em>economic</em> interest, even if their upfront costs are high, because their long-term benefits exceed the costs.</p></li></ul><p>Examples:</p><ul><li><p><strong>Relieving grid bottlenecks</strong> reduces technical losses in the power system, cutting emissions over time and improving supply.</p></li><li><p><strong>Converting simple-cycle gas plants to combined cycle</strong> raises efficiency by about one-third, boosting electricity supply while cutting emissions.</p></li><li><p><strong>Associated gas capture projects</strong>: even if gas capture is costly, you must count the market value of that gas (e.g., used in power plants instead of imported gas). For many projects, the value of recovered gas exceeds the project cost.</p><p></p></li><li><p>In other words, Iraq is implementing these projects because they make economic or social sense, not primarily for emission reductions. If a project weren&#8217;t economically viable, why the state build it?</p></li><li><p>This means such projects usually <em>do not</em> meet the &#8220;additionality&#8221; criterion required for selling carbon credits. Additionality means a project <em>needs</em> carbon credit revenue to become viable. If a project is already profitable without credits, it generally fails this test.</p></li><li><p>For example, some methane-reduction measures in Iraq&#8217;s oil and gas sector are &#8220;no net cost&#8221; options. For those measures, there is no real additionality, so they usually cannot generate high-value carbon credits, and might only be eligible&#8212;if at all&#8212;for very low prices (around USD 10 per tonne).</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kNJf!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1efb7f04-2921-4ca1-9ea7-8e0c75959071_1346x585.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kNJf!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1efb7f04-2921-4ca1-9ea7-8e0c75959071_1346x585.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kNJf!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1efb7f04-2921-4ca1-9ea7-8e0c75959071_1346x585.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kNJf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1efb7f04-2921-4ca1-9ea7-8e0c75959071_1346x585.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kNJf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1efb7f04-2921-4ca1-9ea7-8e0c75959071_1346x585.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kNJf!,w_2400,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1efb7f04-2921-4ca1-9ea7-8e0c75959071_1346x585.png" width="1200" height="521.5453194650818" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1efb7f04-2921-4ca1-9ea7-8e0c75959071_1346x585.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:false,&quot;imageSize&quot;:&quot;large&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:585,&quot;width&quot;:1346,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:1200,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:&quot;center&quot;,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-large" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kNJf!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1efb7f04-2921-4ca1-9ea7-8e0c75959071_1346x585.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kNJf!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1efb7f04-2921-4ca1-9ea7-8e0c75959071_1346x585.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kNJf!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1efb7f04-2921-4ca1-9ea7-8e0c75959071_1346x585.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kNJf!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1efb7f04-2921-4ca1-9ea7-8e0c75959071_1346x585.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><ul><li><p>You cannot fool the international community or carbon-market experts&#8212;who are already pushing for more transparency&#8212;by setting an extremely low mitigation target in your NDC (e.g., 1&#8211;2%), then reducing more than that just to sell the extra cuts as credits. Buyers will see through the trick, question additionality, and refuse to buy. This is largely what has happened so far with Iraq.</p></li><li><p>On the contrary, <strong>raising</strong> mitigation ambition in the NDC actually makes additionality easier to demonstrate. With a higher target, any extra reductions beyond your &#8220;highest possible ambition&#8221; are easier to justify as needing carbon finance.</p></li><li><p>So, the popular claim that Iraq should keep its NDC ambition low to &#8220;free up&#8221; reductions for sale on carbon markets is backward. Raising ambition, done correctly, is the better path to transparent, credible participation in carbon markets.</p></li><li><p>For more on this, I&#8217;ve written a <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/engage/coe/article-details/65afad839138d231618d609b">detailed paper</a> (in English) that goes into these issues.</p></li></ul><h3>10. Does higher mitigation ambition in the NDC mean more finance for Iraq?</h3><ul><li><p>The Green Climate Fund (GCF) explicitly requires funded projects to be aligned with the country&#8217;s NDC and asks the country to explain how the project supports NDC mitigation and/or adaptation goals.</p></li><li><p>If we look at GCF funding received by countries in the same income group as Iraq (upper-middle-income) such as Nigeria, Kazakhstan, and Algeria, we find that Iraq has made decent progress&#8212;getting about USD 20 million more than Algeria&#8212;but still around <strong>USD 200 million less</strong> than Kazakhstan and Nigeria, which have more ambitious emissions-reduction targets than Iraq.</p></li><li><p>This suggests that Iraq can realistically obtain more climate finance and meet additionality requirements more easily if it <strong>increases</strong> its mitigation ambition in the NDC, contrary to what some elites in Iraq claim.</p></li></ul><h3>11. What does &#8220;USD 100 billion&#8221; mean when talking about the size of Iraq&#8217;s green economy? Is it the same as the old NDC&#8217;s USD 100 billion?</h3><ul><li><p>In my humble understanding, the &#8220;USD 100 billion&#8221; figure (used in some public discussions) refers to the <strong>total volume of activity</strong> over a decade (say 2025&#8211;2035), i.e. about USD 10 billion per year. &#8220;Volume of activity&#8221; means all state spending plus domestic investment in environmental-improvement and related projects.</p></li><li><p>For example, if the government spends USD 1 billion on gas-capture projects in a given year, that counts toward the USD 100 billion &#8220;volume of activity&#8221;.</p></li></ul><p>This means:</p><ul><li><p>The USD 100 billion is <strong>not</strong> the net profit to the state.</p></li><li><p>It doesn&#8217;t mean USD 100 billion will flow into the state budget as revenue.</p></li><li><p>The actual net profit for the state is unknown.</p><p></p></li><li><p>It is also not clear whether the old NDC&#8217;s USD 100 billion demand (which we saw was arbitrary and unrealistic) was ever meant to represent this &#8220;green economy size&#8221;. The two numbers share the same value but not necessarily the same meaning.</p></li></ul><h3>12.Why is the baseline scenario the most important element of an NDC?</h3><ul><li><p>A baseline scenario assumes no new climate policies or additional mitigation measures beyond what already exists. Future emissions are projected based on historical trends and drivers. It estimates future emissions by sector&#8212;electricity, industry, oil and gas, transport, buildings, agriculture, waste, etc.&#8212;using scientific modelling that reflects national circumstances (population, GDP, sectoral drivers, and so on).</p></li><li><p>The baseline gives you the <strong>reference point</strong> you need to see whether any real reduction has occurred under a mitigation scenario.</p></li><li><p>For example, if baseline emissions in 2030 are 1,175 million tonnes CO&#8322;-eq and the mitigation scenario projects 959 million tonnes, then the reduction is 1,175 &#8211; 959 = 216 million tonnes.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhDd!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac2219da-78b5-401f-990e-d857db86a55f_850x493.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhDd!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac2219da-78b5-401f-990e-d857db86a55f_850x493.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhDd!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac2219da-78b5-401f-990e-d857db86a55f_850x493.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhDd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac2219da-78b5-401f-990e-d857db86a55f_850x493.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhDd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac2219da-78b5-401f-990e-d857db86a55f_850x493.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhDd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac2219da-78b5-401f-990e-d857db86a55f_850x493.png" width="850" height="493" data-attrs="{&quot;src&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ac2219da-78b5-401f-990e-d857db86a55f_850x493.png&quot;,&quot;srcNoWatermark&quot;:null,&quot;fullscreen&quot;:null,&quot;imageSize&quot;:null,&quot;height&quot;:493,&quot;width&quot;:850,&quot;resizeWidth&quot;:null,&quot;bytes&quot;:null,&quot;alt&quot;:null,&quot;title&quot;:null,&quot;type&quot;:null,&quot;href&quot;:null,&quot;belowTheFold&quot;:true,&quot;topImage&quot;:false,&quot;internalRedirect&quot;:null,&quot;isProcessing&quot;:false,&quot;align&quot;:null,&quot;offset&quot;:false}" class="sizing-normal" alt="" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhDd!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac2219da-78b5-401f-990e-d857db86a55f_850x493.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhDd!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac2219da-78b5-401f-990e-d857db86a55f_850x493.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhDd!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac2219da-78b5-401f-990e-d857db86a55f_850x493.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!vhDd!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fac2219da-78b5-401f-990e-d857db86a55f_850x493.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div></li><li><p>Without a baseline, you <em>cannot</em> calculate emission reductions or verify whether a country has met its NDC targets. <strong>That&#8217;s why the baseline is critical.</strong></p></li><li><p>Unfortunately, Iraq&#8217;s first NDC (2021) did <em>not</em> include a proper baseline scenario. It left the international community and experts thoroughly confused about what exactly that 1&#8211;2% reduction meant, and what absolute amount of emissions that percentage represented.</p></li><li><p>It&#8217;s ironic that some people who have never built a single baseline scenario in their careers, and have no published research involving baselines, criticise those whose core work is precisely to model baseline scenarios for countries&#8212;thinking such criticism makes them look more &#8220;scientific&#8221;, while in reality it weakens their credibility among experts.</p></li></ul><h3><strong>13. Are carbon credits really a substitute for oil? Is the General Company for Economics of Carbon &#8220;the new SOMO&#8221;?</strong></h3><ul><li><p><strong>Carbon credits </strong><em><strong>cannot</strong></em><strong> replace oil</strong>. <strong>Oil will remain far more valuable to Iraq</strong>&#8212;in absolute economic terms&#8212;than carbon credits, in the near future and for a long time.</p></li><li><p>Here, I&#8217;m talking about <strong>net revenue</strong>, not total project cost or &#8220;volume of activity&#8221;: how much actual money reaches the state budget.</p></li><li><p>In voluntary carbon markets (including projects under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement and the broader voluntary market), around 90% of credit revenue generally goes to the project developer or investor. Only if the state itself owns the project does that revenue flow directly to the government&#8212;as we see in countries like Kenya and Ghana that have passed strong laws in this area.</p></li><li><p>In compliance markets, revenues may accrue more to the state, but developing countries typically don&#8217;t start with domestic compliance markets. Richer countries do, to force polluting firms and sectors to cut emissions. Developing countries focus instead on accessing Article 6 mechanisms and voluntary markets.</p></li><li><p>The main purpose of carbon credits is to make environmentally beneficial projects viable instead of stalled. For example, if an emissions-reduction project costs USD 50 million and meets all additionality and integrity criteria, selling credits over its lifetime may bring in, say, USD 10 million for the investor. That&#8217;s a <strong>partial</strong> cost-reduction (20%), not full cost coverage. And again, that revenue belongs to the project developer, whether public or private&#8212;not automatically to the treasury.</p></li></ul><p>Now, the oil comparison:</p><ul><li><p>Oil revenues bring Iraq <strong>over USD 100 billion per year</strong> in many years.</p></li><li><p>The total <em>global</em> value of all carbon markets (worldwide) is roughly USD 100 billion per year, including the EU ETS, which is the largest compliance market.</p></li><li><p>Those same USD 100 billion are spread across <em>all countries</em> and all markets. Iraq currently participates in none of the serious compliance markets.</p></li><li><p>How then can Iraq possibly generate USD 100 billion per year from carbon credits alone and claim they can &#8220;replace&#8221; oil?</p></li></ul><p>Let&#8217;s make a generous hypothetical:</p><ul><li><p>Assume Iraq&#8217;s emissions in 2030 are 270 million tonnes CO&#8322;-eq.</p></li><li><p>Assume Iraq implements projects that reduce emissions by 30% (more than it has pledged in its NDC), i.e. 0.30 &#215; 270 = 81 million tonnes.</p></li><li><p>Assume a very optimistic voluntary market price of USD 50 per tonne.</p></li></ul><p>Total revenue from selling those credits up to 2030 would be:</p><ul><li><p>81 million tonnes &#215; 50 USD = USD 4.05 billion total,</p></li><li><p>which is less than USD 0.8 billion per year on average.</p></li><li><p>So, at best, <strong>annual</strong> state revenue from carbon trading will be under USD 1 billion by 2030.</p></li><li><p>It is therefore impossible&#8212;under any realistic scenario&#8212;for the General Company for Economics of Carbon to become a financial replacement for SOMO (Iraq&#8217;s oil marketing company).</p></li></ul><h3>14. What does Iraq need to enter carbon markets?</h3><ul><li><p>Carbon markets are new territory for Iraq and for many countries. We currently have almost no people with <em>practical</em> experience actually working in these markets. It will take 2&#8211;3 years just to properly understand how things work and train staff.</p></li><li><p>Realistically, Iraq cannot have a functioning carbon market before around 2029 at the very earliest.</p></li><li><p>There are three main types of carbon markets globally (which I have discussed in more detail elsewhere). Iraq first needs to decide: does it want a domestic compliance market, or to focus on voluntary/Article 6 mechanisms?</p></li></ul><p>Then, it must do at least five complex and parallel things:</p><ol><li><p>Clarify the <strong>political strategy</strong> for engaging in carbon markets.</p></li><li><p>Define the <strong>institutional and organisational setup</strong> (who does what, which ministries, which authorities).</p></li><li><p>Establish the <strong>legal and regulatory framework</strong>.</p></li><li><p>Create a <strong>technical and scientific body</strong> specialised in carbon markets.</p></li><li><p>Build the <strong>operational systems and infrastructure</strong> for actual implementation.</p></li></ol><ul><li><p>Anything less than this is just empty talk that &#8220;neither feeds nor fattens,&#8221; as the Arabic phrase goes.</p></li><li><p>No country in the world has ever created a carbon market, or seriously traded in these markets, in less than 3&#8211;5 years of serious work.</p></li></ul><h3>15. The new global climate finance goal (NCQG) agreed at COP29 in Baku&#8212;USD 300 billion per year&#8212;is too small and mostly loans</h3><ul><li><p>It&#8217;s true: USD 300 billion per year is too little compared to what developing countries say they need, which is over USD 1 trillion per year.</p></li><li><p>Ideally, wealthy countries would have pledged <strong>more</strong> than USD 300 billion, mostly as grants rather than loans or private sector flows.</p></li><li><p>However, some studies suggest that this figure <em>could</em> be enough to fully decarbonise the power sectors of all developing countries by 2035&#8212;or even earlier. Over ten years, that&#8217;s 300 billion &#215; 10 = USD 3 trillion.</p></li><li><p>Iraq ranked 9th out of 109 developing countries in terms of priority for this funding, with an indicative share of about USD 27 billion per year to fully decarbonise its entire power sector.</p></li><li><p>Recently, Iraq obtained a USD 500 million loan for Basrah Gas Company from IFC (part of the World Bank Group). This will certainly be counted under Iraq&#8217;s portion of the NCQG.</p></li><li><p>Some may say: loans are useless. But consider:</p></li></ul><ol><li><p>Getting a <strong>concessional loan</strong> (low interest) is better than taking out the same loan at high market rates.</p></li><li><p>Securing a concessional USD 500 million loan is better than receiving nothing at all.</p></li><li><p>Receiving that loan <em>does not</em> reduce Iraq&#8217;s overall &#8220;entitlement&#8221; in principle.</p></li></ol><ul><li><p>Of course, in an ideal world, Iraq would receive the full USD 27 billion per year as <em>grants</em>, not half a billion as a loan. But that option simply does not exist at present.</p></li></ul><p></p><p><strong>Dr. Ahmed Gailani </strong></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[تقويم الشركة العامة لكاربون الاقتصاديات في العراق]]></title><description><![CDATA[&#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1601;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1548; &#1610;&#1615;&#1585;&#1580;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1591;&#1604;&#1575;&#1593; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1580;&#1608;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1587;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1582;&#1610;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1577;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1610;&#1581;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1580;&#1575;&#1576;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1574;&#1604;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1601;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1605;&#1585;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610;&#1610;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1583;&#1583;.]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/ab6</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/ab6</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sun, 16 Nov 2025 19:41:22 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gERh!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad1516c7-1fac-4474-aafe-1c2a8015faa0_1024x1024.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p> &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1601;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1548; &#1610;&#1615;&#1585;&#1580;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1591;&#1604;&#1575;&#1593; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;<a href="https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/publish/posts/detail/175146636?referrer=%2Fpublish%2Fposts%2Fpublished"> </a><strong><a href="https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/publish/posts/detail/175146636?referrer=%2Fpublish%2Fposts%2Fpublished">&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1580;&#1608;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1587;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1582;&#1610;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1577;: &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;</a></strong> &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1610;&#1581;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1580;&#1575;&#1576;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1574;&#1604;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1601;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1605;&#1585;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610;&#1610;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1583;&#1583;.</p><p><strong>&#1578;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1607;:</strong> &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604; &#1610;&#1615;&#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1593;&#1606; <strong>&#1585;&#1571;&#1610;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1582;&#1589;&#1610;</strong> &#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1610;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1607;&#1610; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577;  &#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1572;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1610; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1593;&#1602;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1605;&#1606;&#1548; &#1608;&#1571;&#1610; &#1578;&#1588;&#1575;&#1576;&#1607; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1576;&#1610;&#1606; &#1571;&#1610; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1571;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1607;&#1608; &#1576;&#1605;&#1581;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1583;&#1601;&#1577;. &#1608;&#1604;&#1578;&#1587;&#1607;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1585; &#1587;&#1606;&#1587;&#1578;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604; &#8220;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#8221; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577;.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gERh!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad1516c7-1fac-4474-aafe-1c2a8015faa0_1024x1024.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gERh!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad1516c7-1fac-4474-aafe-1c2a8015faa0_1024x1024.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gERh!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad1516c7-1fac-4474-aafe-1c2a8015faa0_1024x1024.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!gERh!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fad1516c7-1fac-4474-aafe-1c2a8015faa0_1024x1024.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><h2>&#1605;&#1575; &#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578;&#1567;</h2><ul><li><p>&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1572;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1606; &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1605;&#1580;&#1604;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1593; &#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585; &#1608;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;. </p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585; &#1607;&#1608; &#1606;&#1605;&#1608;&#1584;&#1580; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1610;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1605;&#1608; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1601;&#1575;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;</strong> &#1605;&#1593; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1583; &#1576;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577;</strong> &#1608;&#1606;&#1583;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1585;&#1583;. &#1610;&#1585;&#1603;&#1586; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1593;&#1586;&#1586; &#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1585;&#1583; &#1608;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;.</p></li><li><p>&#1571;&#1605;&#1575; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1607;&#1610; &#1571;&#1606;&#1592;&#1605;&#1577; &#1578;&#1583;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; &#1578;&#1587;&#1605;&#1581; &#1576;&#1600; <strong>&#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1608;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1571;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583;&#1577; (&#1581;&#1589;&#1589;) &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1601;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577;</strong> (&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1579;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610; &#1571;&#1603;&#1587;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;). &#1578;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1573;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1581;&#1601;&#1610;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1602;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1589;&#1583;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1601;&#1575;&#1592; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1590;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1578;&#1576;&#1575;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610; &#1608;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;.</p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1601;&#1581;&#1587;&#1576;&#1548; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1576;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1610; &#1608;&#1593;&#1585;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1585;&#1589; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1603;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1605;&#1606; &#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1593;&#1608;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1610;&#1548; &#1608;&#1593;&#1585;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1585;&#1589; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1608;&#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1580;&#1605;&#1593; &#1608;&#1578;&#1581;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1591;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1589; &#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1583;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1576;&#1577;&#1548;  &#1608;&#1603;&#1604; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608; &#1604;&#1603; &#1608;&#1610;&#1591;&#1610;&#1576; &#1605;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1608;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1589;&#1591;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1578;.</p></li><li><p>&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1607;&#1610; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610; &#1603;&#1604; &#1588;&#1610;&#1574; &#1603;&#1571;&#1610; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609; &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1634;&#1634; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1633;&#1641;&#1634;&#1637; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1583;&#1604;.</p><h2>&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577;</h2></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1587;&#1593;&#1577; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1610;&#1578;&#1591;&#1604;&#1576; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1607;&#1575; <strong>&#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;</strong> &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1603;&#1576;&#1585;&#1609; &#1575;&#1608; &#1605;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1606;&#1581;&#1608; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1608;&#1592;&#1601;&#1548; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1582;&#1591;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1571;&#1578;&#1578; &#1576;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1571;&#1587;&#1610;&#1587;&#1610; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;&#1610; &#1605;&#1605;&#1575; &#1608;&#1604;&#1583; &#1590;&#1594;&#1591;&#1575;&#1611; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1601;&#1585;&#1577; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1571;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;. </p></li><li><p> &#1576;&#1585;&#1571;&#1610;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1593; &#1610;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1633;&#1637; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1605;&#1578;&#1578;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1575;&#1589;&#1604; &#1608;&#1576;&#1605;&#1610;&#1586;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;  &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604; &#1593;&#1606; 50 &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610; (&#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1571;&#1610; &#1585;&#1576;&#1581;). </p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1606; &#1606;&#1580;&#1581;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1548; &#1587;&#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1576;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1610; &#1608;&#1580;&#1605;&#1593; &#1608;&#1578;&#1581;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1593;&#1591;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1589;&#1567; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606; &#1606;&#1580;&#1581;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1587;&#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593; &#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1576;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1567;! &#1608;&#1607;&#1603;&#1584;&#1575; &#1583;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1603;. </p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1585; &#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1578;&#1577; &#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601; &#1571;&#1610;&#1606; &#1578;&#1578;&#1580;&#1607; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;  &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1633;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;. </p></li><li><p>&#1579;&#1605; &#1605;&#1575; &#1586;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1614;&#1604;&#1577;&#1548; &#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1589;&#1585;&#1610;&#1581;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606; &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610;&#1610;&#1606; <strong>&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1602;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1604;&#1603;&#1610;&#1577;</strong> &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1571;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1587;&#1610;&#1576;&#1604;&#1594; &#1575;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1575;&#1608; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;&#1610; &#1605;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1591; &#1576;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1601;&#1585;&#1590; &#1571;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604; &#1633;&#1642; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; = &#1633; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610; &#1601;&#1610; &#1585;&#1576;&#1591; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1615;&#1579;&#1576;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606; &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1575;&#1610; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610; &#1605;&#1593;&#1585;&#1608;&#1601;&#1548; &#1608;&#1580;&#1583;&#1604;&#1610; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1581;&#1587;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1592;&#1585;&#1608;&#1601;. </p></li><li><p>&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1604;&#1607; &#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1590;&#1594;&#1591; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1604;&#1608; &#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1606;&#1580;&#1581;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; <strong>&#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1571;&#1608; &#1571;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1581;</strong> &#1576;&#1605;&#1602;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585; &#1636;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1578;&#1587;&#1593;&#1609; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1607; &#1571;&#1610; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; (&#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1582;&#1575;&#1587;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;)&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1610;&#1615;&#1593;&#1578;&#1576;&#1585; &#1601;&#1588;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1576;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1576;&#1578;&#1589;&#1585;&#1610;&#1581;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610;. </p></li><li><p>&#1579;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1610;&#1578;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1604;: &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1603;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1606;&#1575;&#1588;&#1574;&#1577; &#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577; &#1578;&#1578;&#1576;&#1593; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; <strong>&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1591;&#1604;&#1608;&#1576; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1571;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1607;&#1603;&#1584;&#1575; &#1571;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1581; &#1601;&#1604;&#1603;&#1610;&#1577; </strong>&#1608;&#1571;&#1582;&#1584; &#1583;&#1608;&#1585; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1578;&#1587;&#1608;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1587;&#1608;&#1605;&#1608; &#1575;&#1608; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;. &#1601;&#1604;&#1608; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1607;&#1575; &#1589;&#1585;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1585;&#1576;&#1581;&#1575;&#1611; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1583;&#1605;&#1577; &#1576;&#1605;&#1602;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585; &#1637;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591; &#1576;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1605; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1548; &#1604;&#1578;&#1605; &#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1606;&#1580;&#1575;&#1581;&#1575;&#1611; &#1576;&#1575;&#1607;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575;! &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1571;&#1606; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1605;&#1615;&#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1593; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1586;&#1606;&#1577; &#1571;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;. &#1601;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1610;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1576;&#1582;&#1591;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1587;&#1610;&#1591;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1579;&#1605; &#1578;&#1606;&#1605;&#1608; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1593;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1578;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1576;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1606;&#1575;&#1588;&#1574;&#1577; &#1576;&#1585;&#1571;&#1587; &#1605;&#1575;&#1604; &#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1608;&#1583; &#1579;&#1605; &#1578;&#1606;&#1605;&#1608; &#1608;&#1578;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1605;&#1593; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1605;&#1606;.  </p></li><li><p>&#1579;&#1605; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;<strong>&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585;&#1609;</strong> &#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1601;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1603;&#1604;&#1607; &#1571;&#1610; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1605;&#1605;&#1575;&#1579;&#1604;&#1577; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1605;&#1581;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1606;&#1601;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1606;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1580;&#1585;&#1576;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1571;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575;&#1587;&#1593;&#1577; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611;. &#1601;&#1604;&#1608; &#1575;&#1606; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1587;&#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1571;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1581; &#1578;&#1608;&#1575;&#1586;&#1610; &#1571;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1581; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1587;&#1608;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1605;&#1606; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1571;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1580;&#1583;&#1585; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567; &#1601;&#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1604;&#1607;&#1603;&#1584;&#1575; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1583;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1606; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1582;&#1604;&#1604;&#1575; &#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1608; &#1587;&#1608;&#1569; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;. </p></li><li><p>&#1602;&#1583; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1604; &#1589;&#1606;&#1583;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1578;&#1615;&#1583;&#1593;&#1609; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; <a href="https://vcm.sa/ar/">&#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610; </a> &#1548; &#1601;&#1606;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1589;&#1577; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591; &#1576;&#1578;&#1583;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1589;&#1583;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1571;&#1610; &#1605;&#1586;&#1575;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606;&#1584; &#1575;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1604;&#1581;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606; &#1579;&#1605; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578; &#1605;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584;&#1610;&#1577; &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1588;&#1607;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;. &#1579;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1587;&#1593;&#1577; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1582;&#1578;&#1589;&#1608;&#1575; &#1576;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610; (&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587;) &#1608;&#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1589;&#1585;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575; &#1576;&#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; </p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; <strong>&#1608;&#1575;&#1587;&#1593;&#1577; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577;</strong>&#1548; &#1608;&#1576;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1587;&#1606;&#1578;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1571;&#1587;&#1610;&#1587;&#1548; &#1575;&#1578;&#1582;&#1584;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1576;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1589;&#1610;&#1575;&#1594;&#1577; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1576;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1605;&#1575; &#1571;&#1603;&#1583;&#1607; &#1604;&#1610; &#1588;&#1582;&#1589;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1585;&#1574;&#1610;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1580;&#1605;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1590;&#1608;&#1585;.</p><p></p><p><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1589;&#1610;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1609;: &#1576;&#1593;&#1583; &#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1576;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607;&#1548; &#1608;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1590; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1610;&#1605; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1589;&#1610;&#1575;&#1594;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1610;&#1586; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1588;&#1610;&#1574; &#1608;&#1575;&#1581;&#1583; &#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591; (&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1608;&#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;) &#1576;&#1605;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1635;-&#1637; &#1587;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1576;&#1578;&#1583;&#1575;&#1569;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1638; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1569; &#1601;&#1603;&#1585;&#1577;&#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610; &#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1593;&#1591;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1610; &#1608;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583; &#1604;&#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1581;. &#1575;&#1608; &#1581;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1578;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1605;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1602;&#1587;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; &#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;. </strong></p><p></p><h2>&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1606;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1567; </h2></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610; &#1605;&#1606; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1608; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1589;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; <strong>&#1601;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1581;&#1575;&#1580;&#1577; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577;</strong> &#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;. &#1601;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1591;&#1575;&#1585; &#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610; &#1608;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578;&#1610; &#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1608;&#1571;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581;&#1578; &#1578;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1608;&#1578;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1610; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; <strong>&#1578;&#1575;&#1610;&#1604;&#1606;&#1583; &#1608;&#1594;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575; &#1608;&#1603;&#1610;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1603;&#1605;&#1576;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1585;&#1575;&#1608;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;</strong> &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1610;&#1576;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610; <strong>&#1571;&#1610; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577;! </strong>&#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1604;&#1580;&#1575;&#1606; &#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1582;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1589;.<strong> </strong></p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1579;&#1576;&#1575;&#1578; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1571;&#1583;&#1606;&#1575;&#1607; &#1607;&#1608; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1610;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1610;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610; &#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575; &#1608;&#1585;&#1575;&#1608;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1589; &#1576;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;</strong> &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587;&#1548; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1610;&#1582;&#1604;&#1608; &#1605;&#1606; &#1571;&#1610; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1585;&#1609; &#1576;&#1604; &#1603;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1607;&#1610;&#1574;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1604;&#1580;&#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;. </p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 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pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1588;&#1585;&#1593;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1593;&#1578; &#1604;&#1605; &#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577;&#1548; <strong>&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580;&#1567;</strong></p></li><li><p> &#1602;&#1583; &#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1607;&#1608; &#1604;&#1578;&#1587;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1580;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;&#1575;&#1578; &#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1590;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1608;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1591;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1587;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1590;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;. &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1607;&#1608; &#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604;. </p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1588;&#1610;&#1569; &#1578;&#1602;&#1585;&#1610;&#1576;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606; &#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1590;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1591;&#1608;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1583;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1603;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1589;&#1591;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1578;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1607; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1582;&#1585;&#1610;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1578;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1606;&#1580;&#1581;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1592;&#1585;&#1608;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1580;&#1580; &#1576;&#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1608;&#1585; &#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1588;&#1610;&#1569; &#1582;&#1575;&#1589; Unique &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;. &#1601;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1606;&#1591;&#1576;&#1602; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607;&#1605; &#1610;&#1606;&#1591;&#1576;&#1602; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1606; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1605;&#1593; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1589;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1608;&#1590;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;.  &#1601;&#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577; &#1608;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1580;&#1585;&#1575;&#1572;&#1607;&#1575; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;. </p></li><li><p>&#1610;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1591; &#1571;&#1610; &#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; <strong>&#1575;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1575;&#1591;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1608;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575;</strong> &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1608;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1608;&#1586;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1576;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1587;&#1610;&#1602; &#1605;&#1593;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607; &#1571;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1578;&#1578;&#1576;&#1593; &#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1608;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1578;&#1606;&#1590;&#1605; &#1604;&#1607; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1608;&#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1610; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1592;&#1585;&#1608;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1588;&#1585;&#1577;. </p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1576;&#1571;&#1610; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; <strong>&#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;</strong> (&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1590; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1608;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577;) <strong>&#1608;&#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;</strong> &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1615;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; (&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1615;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;) &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1589;&#1585;&#1610;&#1581; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575;. &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1591;&#1604;&#1576; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1608;&#1609; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1605;&#1593;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604; &#1576;&#1607; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609; (&#1575;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1575;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1608;&#1605; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1589;&#1585;&#1610;&#1581;).  </p></li><li><p><strong>&#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1604;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1576;&#1605;&#1601;&#1585;&#1583;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611;</strong> &#1604;&#1571;&#1610; &#1587;&#1576;&#1576; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606; &#1571;&#1581;&#1583; &#1571;&#1587;&#1576;&#1575;&#1576; &#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1606;&#1580;&#1575;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1607;&#1608; <strong>&#1575;&#1606;&#1591;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1607;&#1575; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607;&#1575;.</strong> &#1601;&#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1571;&#1585;&#1583;&#1606;&#1575; &#1606;&#1589;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1610;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1586;&#1605; (&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607;) &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1593; &#1587;&#1603;&#1585;&#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1591;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; (&#1608;&#1607;&#1605; &#1571;&#1607;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1582;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1589;)&#1548; &#1578;&#1605; &#1585;&#1601;&#1590; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1581;&#1590;&#1585; &#1605;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605; &#1605;&#1606; &#1571;&#1607;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606;.</p></li><li><p> &#1608;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; <strong>&#1610;&#1578;&#1591;&#1604;&#1576; &#1578;&#1571;&#1587;&#1610;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1588;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577;</strong> &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;  &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1593;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1588;&#1585;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1604;&#1580;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1578;&#1615;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1571;&#1594;&#1604;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; (&#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1585;&#1571;&#1610;&#1578;) &#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1610;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1575; &#1605;&#1608;&#1580;&#1608;&#1583; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;. </p></li><li><p>&#1579;&#1605; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1605;&#1606; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1586;&#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1608; &#1610;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580;&#1585; &#1605;&#1593;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; (&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1638;.&#1634; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;) <strong>&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1593; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578;</strong>! &#1601;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1578;&#1585;&#1576;&#1581; &#1608;&#1578;&#1582;&#1587;&#1585;&#1548; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1588;&#1585;&#1577; &#1605;&#1593; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1585;&#1576;&#1581;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1581;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1576;&#1575;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1583;&#1593;&#1575; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; <strong>&#1578;&#1575;&#1610;&#1604;&#1606;&#1583; &#1608;&#1594;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575; &#1608;&#1603;&#1610;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1603;&#1605;&#1576;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1585;&#1575;&#1608;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575; </strong>&#1604;&#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;. &#1601;&#1590;&#1604;&#1575; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1605;&#1606; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604; &#1571;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1593; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1585;&#1576;&#1581;&#1610;&#1577; &#1602;&#1583; &#1578;&#1585;&#1576;&#1581; &#1608;&#1602;&#1583; &#1578;&#1582;&#1587;&#1585;! </p></li></ul><p><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1589;&#1610;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577;: &#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1603;&#1610;&#1585; &#1576;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1585; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1580;&#1575;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1571;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1605; &#1578;&#1606;&#1588;&#1571; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1585;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;. </strong></p><h3><strong>&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1583;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1606; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1567;</strong></h3><ul><li><p>&#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1575;&#1606; &#1571;&#1594;&#1604;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1607;&#1610; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1608;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; Energy and Resource Efficiency &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1594;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575; &#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1607;&#1610; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1589;&#1604;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575; &#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1608;&#1604;&#1608; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1576;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601; &#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1601;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1608; &#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1571;&#1593;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;.</p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1582;&#1578;&#1606;&#1575;&#1602;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1576;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1604; &#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1576;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583; &#1608;&#1603;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1577; &#1576;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1604;&#1579; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1591;&#1575;&#1578; &#1584;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1587;&#1610;&#1591;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1576;&#1577; &#1605;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1587;&#1607;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; &#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1578;&#1580;&#1607;&#1610;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1576;&#1606;&#1601;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1578; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1603;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1594;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1581;&#1576;&#1548; &#1601;&#1604;&#1608; &#1602;&#1575;&#1604; &#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1604;&#1548; &#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1605;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586;&#1548; &#1606;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1585;&#1580; (&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1587;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1581;&#1591;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569;) &#1576;&#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1608;&#1602;&#1548; &#1576;&#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;. &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581; &#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1587;&#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1586;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1587;&#1578;&#1580;&#1583; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1601;&#1593;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; &#1575;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; <strong>&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1608;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577;</strong> &#1576;&#1594;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1604;&#1583;&#1577;. &#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1585;&#1580;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1601;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1605;&#1581;&#1576;&#1576; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605;&#1577;&#1548; &#1573;&#1604;&#1575; &#1575;&#1606;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1575;&#1581;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1584;&#1575;&#1578; &#1580;&#1583;&#1608;&#1609; &#1576;&#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577;&#1548; <strong>&#1601;&#1604;&#1608; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575;&#1567;!</strong></p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1610;&#1578;&#1590;&#1581; &#1571;&#1606;&#1607; <strong>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1604;&#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;</strong> &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; Additionality &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1571;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1604;&#1578;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1605;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1573;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1573;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575; &#1605;&#1606; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575;!</p></li><li><p><strong>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1582;&#1583;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;</strong> &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1605;&#1580;&#1575;&#1604; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610;&#1606; &#1607;&#1605; &#1576;&#1571;&#1588;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1580;&#1577; &#1604;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1588;&#1601;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;  &#1576;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; <strong>&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; (&#1633;-&#1634;)&#1642;</strong> &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1578;&#1578;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606; &#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1634;&#1642;&#1548; <strong>&#1575;&#1584; &#1587;&#1610;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1589;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1603; &#1578;&#1578;&#1593;&#1605;&#1583; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1604;&#1603;&#1610; &#1578;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593;</strong>&#1548; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1610; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1576;&#1593;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1610;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1585; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1604;&#1606; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1571;&#1610; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;!</p></li><li><p><strong>&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1603;&#1587;&#1548; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1610;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577;</strong> (&#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1607;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1574;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;) &#1571;&#1587;&#1607;&#1604; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607; &#1587;&#1610;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1591;&#1585;&#1610;&#1602; &#1571;&#1587;&#1607;&#1604; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1601;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1593;&#1603;&#1587; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1585;&#1608;&#1580;&#1607; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1575;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610;&#1606; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607;&#1605; &#1571;&#1610; &#1582;&#1576;&#1585;&#1577; &#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1571;&#1576;&#1581;&#1575;&#1579; &#1605;&#1606;&#1588;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1575;&#1604;.</p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1605;&#1586;&#1610;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1604;&#1608;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1589;&#1610;&#1604; &#1576;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606;&#1548; &#1610;&#1585;&#1580;&#1609; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1576;&#1581;&#1579;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1588;&#1608;&#1585; <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/engage/coe/article-details/65afad839138d231618d609b">&#1607;&#1606;&#1575;</a></p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1604;&#1608; &#1606;&#1592;&#1585;&#1606;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; <strong>&#1593;&#1583;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1571;&#1585;&#1587;&#1604;&#1578; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1589;&#1604; &#1633;&#1633;&#1637; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;</strong> (<a href="https://unfccc.int/ndc-3.0">&#1575;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;</a>) &#1605;&#1606; &#1633;&#1641;&#1640; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1578;&#1602;&#1585;&#1610;&#1576;&#1575; &#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1571;&#1594;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1581;&#1583;&#1579;&#1578; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; <strong>&#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587;.</strong> </p></li></ul><p><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1589;&#1610;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1577;: &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1607;&#1610;&#1605; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1580;&#1584;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1614; &#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1584; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1575;&#1569; &#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1608;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1585;&#1572;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1582;&#1591;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1593;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1589;&#1577; &#1576;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;.</strong><em><strong> </strong></em></p><h2>&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1605;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;</h2><ul><li><p>&#1593;&#1602;&#1583;&#1578; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; <strong>&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;</strong> &#1605;&#1593; &#1593;&#1583;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1601;&#1602; &#1605;&#1607;&#1575;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1571;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575;&#1587;&#1593;&#1577;. &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1591;&#1604;&#1608;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1590;&#1610;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1576;&#1585;&#1577; &#1607;&#1610; &#1576;&#1578;&#1601;&#1593;&#1610;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575;. &#1608;&#1605;&#1606; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581; &#1601;&#1610;&#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1587;&#1578;&#1578;&#1571;&#1579;&#1585; &#1576;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1589;&#1610;&#1575;&#1594;&#1577; &#1571;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584;.  </p></li><li><p><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1604;&#1577; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1610; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575;&#1574;&#1593;</strong>! &#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1576;&#1590;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; <strong>&#1576;&#1590;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1601;&#1585;&#1577;</strong> &#1601;&#1610; &#1603;&#1604; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1610; (&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1569; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;) &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1610; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1608; &#1606;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575; &#1575;&#1608; &#1594;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575; &#1575;&#1608; &#1571;&#1610; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1575;&#1582;&#1585; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1580;&#1576;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1610; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1604;&#1571;&#1610; &#1587;&#1576;&#1576; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1601;&#1585;&#1590; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1605;&#1606; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1605;&#1593;&#1610;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607;!  </p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1581;&#1610;&#1583; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1608; &#1590;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606; &#1587;&#1605;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;<strong>&#1580;&#1608;&#1583;&#1577; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1615;&#1608;&#1604;&#1583;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;</strong> <strong>&#1608;&#1590;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606; &#1606;&#1586;&#1575;&#1607;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575;</strong> (&#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1571;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610; &#1605;&#1606; &#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1586;&#1575;&#1607;&#1577;) &#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1606;. </p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; <strong>&#1575;&#1582;&#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; 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srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nid8!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F746e3073-6462-4f40-bff4-10f60d40eee6_776x314.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nid8!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F746e3073-6462-4f40-bff4-10f60d40eee6_776x314.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nid8!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F746e3073-6462-4f40-bff4-10f60d40eee6_776x314.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nid8!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F746e3073-6462-4f40-bff4-10f60d40eee6_776x314.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy"></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div 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href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HRwJ!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab809dc1-7640-4dd4-a963-b94ce30def86_759x203.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HRwJ!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab809dc1-7640-4dd4-a963-b94ce30def86_759x203.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HRwJ!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab809dc1-7640-4dd4-a963-b94ce30def86_759x203.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!HRwJ!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Fab809dc1-7640-4dd4-a963-b94ce30def86_759x203.png 1272w, 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loading="lazy"></picture><div></div></div></a></figure></div><ul><li><p>&#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1605;&#1606; <strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1610;&#1576; &#1581;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611;</strong> &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1583;&#1604;&#1575;&#1569; &#1576;&#1607;&#1603;&#1584;&#1575; &#1578;&#1589;&#1585;&#1610;&#1581; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1548; <strong>&#1601;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583;&#1548; &#1603;&#1605; &#1607;&#1608; &#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1576;&#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1605;&#1567;</strong> </p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1590;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; <strong>&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1605;&#1591;&#1604;&#1608;&#1576; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1575;&#1580;&#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;</strong> &#1575;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1605;&#1591;&#1604;&#1608;&#1576; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605;&#1577; (&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1581;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1608;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610; &#1608;&#1576;&#1585;&#1610;&#1591;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;) &#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1590; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1604;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; Net Zero &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1581;&#1604;&#1608;&#1604; &#1634;&#1632;&#1637;&#1632; &#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1610;&#1606;&#1588;&#1571;&#1608;&#1606; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1580;&#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575;&#1580;&#1576;&#1575;&#1585; &#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1605; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1608;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;. </p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1606; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1582;&#1576;&#1575;&#1585; <strong>&#1578;&#1590;&#1585; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;</strong> &#1601;&#1610; &#1591;&#1585;&#1610;&#1602;&#1607; &#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;. </p><p></p><p><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1589;&#1610;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577;: &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1578;&#1608;&#1590;&#1610;&#1581; &#1585;&#1572;&#1610;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1589;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1605;&#1604; &#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1580;&#1604;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1606; &#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1615;&#1587;&#1587; &#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1605;&#1608;&#1579;&#1608;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1585;&#1589;&#1610;&#1606;&#1577; &#1608;&#1590;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606; &#1601;&#1607;&#1605; &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581; &#1608;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;&#1610; &#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;. </strong></p></li></ul><p>&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1608;&#1605;&#1606; <strong>&#1570;</strong>&#1584;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610; &#1601;&#1607;&#1608; &#1601;&#1610; &#1581;&#1604;&#1613; &#1605;&#1606; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1607;. </p><p>&#1583;. &#1571;&#1581;&#1605;&#1583; &#1603;&#1614;&#1600;&#1600;&#1600;&#1600;&#1600;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610; </p><p></p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[الأجوبة الحاسمة للخيالات الحالمة: العراق وإتفاق باريس للمناخ]]></title><description><![CDATA[&#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575;&#1548; &#1571;&#1581;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1605; &#1575;&#1580;&#1575;&#1576;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1587;&#1575;&#1572;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1601;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1605;&#1585;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1581;&#1583;&#1613; &#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1569; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1548; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1571;&#1583;&#1585;&#1580; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1587;&#1575;&#1572;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1601;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1575;&#1574;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;&#1571;&#1581;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1610;&#1605;&#1607;&#1575;.]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/9d4</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/9d4</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Sat, 04 Oct 2025 17:33:18 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!0zg9!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F4c7fd75e-5e63-465b-b6e7-5f5f99e4669d_1536x1024.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p>&#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575;&#1548; &#1571;&#1581;&#1575;&#1608;&#1604; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1605; &#1575;&#1580;&#1575;&#1576;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1587;&#1575;&#1572;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1601;&#1603;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1605;&#1585;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; 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class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" 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&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1608;&#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607; &#1575;&#1606; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1583;&#1605;&#1585; &#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1610;&#1606;&#1590;&#1605; &#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1567;</strong> </p><p><strong>&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1602;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1633;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1577; &#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1582;&#1610;&#1575;.</strong></p><p><strong>&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610; &#1603;&#1604;&#1607; &#1608;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1604;&#1586;&#1605; &#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;</strong></p><p><strong>&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1586;&#1610;&#1583; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1610;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601; &#1605;&#1610;&#1586;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;&#1567;</strong> </p><p><strong>&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1604;&#1605; &#1605;&#1576;&#1604;&#1594; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1607;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633;&#1567;</strong> </p><p><strong>&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1578;&#1615;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1607;&#1610; &#1571;&#1607;&#1605; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1577; &#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577;&#1567; &#1608;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1605; &#1578;&#1604;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567;</strong> </p><p><strong>&#1605;&#1575; &#1607;&#1610; &#1601;&#1604;&#1587;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1585;&#1572;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587;&#1567;</strong> </p><p><strong>&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1583;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1606; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1567;</strong> </p><p><strong>&#1607;&#1604; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1610;&#1572;&#1583;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567;</strong></p><p><strong>&#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1589;&#1608;&#1583; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579; &#1593;&#1606; &#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567; &#1608;&#1607;&#1604; &#1607;&#1608; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1589;&#1608;&#1583; &#1601;&#1610; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577;&#1567;</strong></p><p> <strong>&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;  &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1607;&#1608; &#1571;&#1607;&#1605; &#1593;&#1606;&#1589;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1567;</strong></p><p> <strong>&#1607;&#1604; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; &#1576;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1567; &#1608;&#1571;&#1606;&#1614; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; &#1587;&#1608;&#1605;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577;&#1567;</strong> </p><p><strong>&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1567;</strong> </p><p><strong>&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;NCQG &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1571;&#1615;&#1602;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1634;&#1641; &#1601;&#1610; &#1576;&#1575;&#1603;&#1608; &#1576;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593; &#1635;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1603;&#1604; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604;!</strong></p><p>&#1606;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571;:</p><h3><strong>&#1633;- &#1607;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1603;&#1584;&#1576;&#1577; &#1608;&#1603;&#1604;&#1575;&#1608;&#1575;&#1578;&#1567;</strong></h3><p>&#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1606;&#1578; &#1578;&#1593;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1603;&#1584;&#1576;&#1577; &#1601;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1591;&#1571; &#1604;&#1593;&#1583;&#1577; &#1571;&#1587;&#1576;&#1575;&#1576;:</p><ul><li><p>&#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; <strong>&#1633;&#1632;&#1633; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;</strong> (&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1602;&#1604;) &#1581;&#1575;&#1574;&#1586; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1580;&#1575;&#1574;&#1586;&#1577; &#1606;&#1608;&#1576;&#1604; &#1610;&#1572;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1605;&#1579;&#1576;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1644; &#1601;&#1607;&#1604; &#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583;&#1606;&#1575; &#1571;&#1606; &#1606;&#1615;&#1603;&#1584;&#1576; &#1607;&#1572;&#1604;&#1575;&#1569;&#1567; &#1606;&#1581;&#1606; &#1606;&#1571;&#1582;&#1584; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605; &#1605;&#1606; &#1571;&#1589;&#1581;&#1575;&#1576;&#1607; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1605;&#1606; &#1570;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1587; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1571;&#1583;&#1604;&#1577;. &#1608;&#1607;&#1606;&#1575; &#1606;&#1587;&#1571;&#1604; &#1607;&#1604; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1603; &#1576;&#1581;&#1579; &#1608;&#1575;&#1581;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606;&#1588;&#1608;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1580;&#1604;&#1577; &#1605;&#1581;&#1603;&#1605;&#1577; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1578;&#1581;&#1603;&#1605;&#1567; </p></li><li><p><a href="https://fossilfueltreaty.org/nobel-letter">&#1585;&#1575;&#1576;&#1591; &#1607;&#1572;&#1604;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1569;</a> &#1605;&#1593; &#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1610;&#1593;&#1607;&#1605; &#1608;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585;&#1607;&#1605; &#1608;&#1575;&#1582;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1589;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1605; &#1608;&#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1605;: &#1633;&#1636; &#1581;&#1575;&#1574;&#1586; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1606;&#1608;&#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1587;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1644; &#1634;&#1639; &#1581;&#1575;&#1574;&#1586; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1606;&#1608;&#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1603;&#1610;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1569;&#1644; &#1638; &#1581;&#1575;&#1574;&#1586; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1606;&#1608;&#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1644; &#1634; &#1581;&#1575;&#1574;&#1586; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1606;&#1608;&#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1570;&#1583;&#1575;&#1576;&#1644; &#1635;&#1632; &#1581;&#1575;&#1574;&#1586; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1606;&#1608;&#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1591;&#1576;&#1644; &#1634;&#1634; &#1581;&#1575;&#1574;&#1586; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1606;&#1608;&#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1601;&#1610;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1569;. &#1608;&#1580;&#1576; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1584;&#1603;&#1610;&#1585; &#1576;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1574;&#1586; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1580;&#1575;&#1574;&#1586;&#1577; &#1606;&#1608;&#1576;&#1604; &#1610;&#1581;&#1589;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1607;&#1572;&#1604;&#1575;&#1569; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575; &#1576;&#1581;&#1575;&#1580;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1576;&#1581;&#1575;&#1580;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1587;&#1605;&#1593;&#1577; &#1608;&#1607;&#1605; &#1571;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575; &#1571;&#1588;&#1607;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1575;&#1585; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1593;&#1604;&#1605;.</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1606;&#1578; &#1578;&#1593;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583; &#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605; &#1605;&#1606; &#1607;&#1572;&#1604;&#1575;&#1569;&#1644; &#1575;&#1584;&#1607;&#1576; &#1608;&#1575;&#1603;&#1578;&#1576; &#1576;&#1581;&#1579;&#1603; &#1608;&#1575;&#1583;&#1581;&#1590; &#1570;&#1585;&#1575;&#1574;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1583;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;. &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1601;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1615;&#1593;&#1578;&#1576;&#1585; &#1593;&#1576;&#1579; &#1608;&#1573;&#1583;&#1593;&#1575;&#1574;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1604;&#1610;&#1602; &#1576;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1608;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1569;. &#1601;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;&#1603; &#1575;&#1602;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1606;&#1575; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1606; &#1604;&#1608; &#1573;&#1576;&#1606;&#1603; &#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1590; &#1601;&#1571;&#1606;&#1578; &#1578;&#1583;&#1575;&#1608;&#1610;&#1607; &#1576;&#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1603; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1590; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1589;&#1575;&#1581;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1576;&#1610;&#1576; &#1604;&#1610;&#1583;&#1575;&#1608;&#1610;&#1607;&#1567;&#1644; &#1601;&#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1603;&#1578;&#1604;&#1603;! &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1603;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1580;&#1608;&#1593; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1569;. &#1575;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575; <a href="https://scholar.google.com/citations?user=5uvTUloAAAAJ&amp;hl=en">&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1587; &#1601;&#1608;&#1585;&#1587;&#1578;&#1585;</a> &#1575;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1574;&#1586; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1580;&#1575;&#1574;&#1586;&#1577; &#1606;&#1608;&#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; <a href="https://economics.yale.edu/people/william-nordhaus">&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1605; &#1606;&#1608;&#1585;&#1583;&#1607;&#1575;&#1608;&#1587;</a>.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1634;-&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1607; &#1610;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1583; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1608;&#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607; &#1575;&#1606; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1583;&#1605;&#1585; &#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1610;&#1606;&#1590;&#1605; &#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1567; </h3><ul><li><p>&#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; = &#1593;&#1586;&#1604;&#1577; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1578;&#1606;&#1592;&#1610;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1601;&#1585;&#1590; &#1579;&#1605;&#1606;&#1611;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1583;&#1608;&#1583; &#1608;&#1610;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574; &#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1579;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1604;&#1589; &#1605;&#1606; &#1581;&#1585;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586;. &#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575; &#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580;&#1607;&#1575;&#1644; &#1601;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606;&#1603; &#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1606; &#1578;&#1572;&#1579;&#1585; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1589;&#1577;  &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1581;&#1601;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;. &#1608;&#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1575; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1582;&#1585;&#1580;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1605; &#1578;&#1572;&#1579;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610; &#1604;&#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1592;&#1610;&#1601;&#1577; &#1644; &#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585; &#1605;&#1593;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1601;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1587;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1605;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1575; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1606;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1606;&#1592;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1582;&#1610;&#1589;&#1577; &#1608;&#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1576;&#1578;&#1606;&#1589;&#1610;&#1576;&#1607;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1569; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1589;&#1585;&#1577; &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1603;&#1606; &#1604;&#1610;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1604;&#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1592;&#1610;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1581;&#1601;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610; &#1576;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;. </p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1606; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1590;&#1585;&#1585;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1570;&#1579;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1644; &#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1580;&#1586;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1610;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1588;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591; &#1580;&#1586;&#1569; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;.</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1570;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1589;&#1606;&#1583;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1605;&#1606;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1572;&#1582;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1636;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1579;&#1605; &#1581;&#1588;&#1585;&#1612; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1593;&#1610;&#1583;! &#1601;&#1571;&#1606;&#1578; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1593;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1602;&#1591;&#1585;&#1608;&#1605;&#1589;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;&#1583;&#1606; &#1608;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1605;&#1606; &#1608;&#1587;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1608;&#1610;&#1578; &#1608;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1590;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;!&#1644; &#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604; &#1603;&#1604;&#1607;&#1605; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1601;&#1578;&#1607;&#1605;&#1608;&#1606;&#1567;!</p></li></ul><h3>&#1635;-&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1602;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1633;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1577; &#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1582;&#1610;&#1575;.</h3><ul><li><p>&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1571;&#1581;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1576;&#1575;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1583;&#1593;&#1608;&#1603; &#1604;&#1604;&#1576;&#1602;&#1575;&#1569; &#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1591;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1577; &#1576;&#1581;&#1602;&#1603; &#1603;&#1608;&#1606;&#1603; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604; &#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1582;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;. </p></li><li><p>&#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1575;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1605; &#1571;&#1602;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1633;&#1642; !  <a href="https://substack.com/home/post/p-174284732">&#1585;&#1575;&#1580;&#1593; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;</a> &#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601; &#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1610;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1575;&#1581;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1610;&#1586;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1576;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;.</p></li><li><p>&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1576;&#1606;&#1609; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1573;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1608;&#1605; ! &#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1576;&#1575;&#1610;&#1606;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1610;&#1602; &#1604;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1608;&#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569; &#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1605;&#1601;&#1575;&#1608;&#1590; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1608;&#1609; (&#1603;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1601;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583;&#1610; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;) &#1607;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1576;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1581;&#1610;&#1583; &#1604;&#1581;&#1605;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1573;&#1604;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585;&#1609; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569; &#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1575;&#1578; &#1583;&#1576;&#1604;&#1608;&#1605;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;&#1603; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1586;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1573;&#1585;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1569; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;. </p></li></ul><h3>&#1636;-&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610; &#1603;&#1604;&#1607; &#1608;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1604;&#1586;&#1605; &#1602;&#1575;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;</h3><ul><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1606;&#1590;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610; &#1606;&#1593;&#1605; &#1601;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1588;&#1610;&#1569; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1580;&#1576;&#1575;&#1585;! </p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1605;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1602;&#1588;&#1578;&#1607;&#1548; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1606;&#1607; Bottom-up &#1576;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1610;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1571;&#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605; &#1608;&#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1576;&#1575;&#1610;&#1606;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601; CBDR-RC &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1606;&#1589; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;</p></li><li><p>&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1573;&#1606;&#1590;&#1605; &#1604;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1575;&#1611;&#1644; &#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1605; &#1576;&#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1583;&#1574; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1581;&#1601;&#1575;&#1592;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1587;&#1605;&#1593;&#1578;&#1607; &#1601;&#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1572;&#1605;&#1606; &#1576;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1601;&#1575;&#1592; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1590;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1581;&#1578;&#1576;&#1575;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1644; &#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1606;&#1590;&#1605; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1567; &#1608;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1606;&#1587;&#1581;&#1576;&#1567; &#1601;&#1590;&#1604;&#1575; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1606;&#1588;&#1608;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1580;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1593;&#1583; &#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1585;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607;. </p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1589;&#1575;&#1581;&#1576; &#1571;&#1608;&#1604; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1582; &#1608;&#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1603; &#1605;&#1610;&#1587;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610;&#1605; &#1634;&#1638;&#1632;&#1632; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1583; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1608;&#1602;&#1593;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1603; &#1604;&#1604;&#1581;&#1601;&#1575;&#1592; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1573;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1607; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606; &#1605;&#1605;&#1604;&#1603;&#1578;&#1610; &#1571;&#1608;&#1605;&#1575; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1603;&#1614;&#1575;&#1588; &#1601;&#1610; &#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1583; &#1605;&#1575; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1607;&#1585;&#1610;&#1606;&#1644; &#1601;&#1605;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1591;&#1602;&#1644; &#1607;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1603;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1605; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1603; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1601;&#1575;&#1592; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1605;&#1606; &#1570;&#1579;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1567;</p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; <strong>&#8220;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610;&#1644; &#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604; &#1576;&#1606;&#1608;&#1583;&#1607; &#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584;!&#8221; </strong>&#1608;&#1575;&#1582;&#1584; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1601;&#1610;&#1583;&#1606;&#1610; &#1608;&#1571;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1590;&#1585;&#1606;&#1610;&#1548; &#1601;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1587;&#1615;&#1584;&#1580;&#1612; &#1605;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1594; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607; &#1601;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1610;&#1606;&#1591;&#1576;&#1602; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1610;&#1606;&#1591;&#1576;&#1602; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1603;&#1587; &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581;. &#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1644; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1578; &#1608;&#1586;&#1606;&#1607; &#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607; &#1605;&#1589;&#1606;&#1608;&#1593; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1576;&#1608;&#1602; &#1608;&#1571;&#1606;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1576;&#1608;&#1602; &#1608;&#1586;&#1606;&#1607; &#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601;! </p></li><li><p>&#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1575;&#1606;&#1593;&#1603;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1587;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1605; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1571;&#1579;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1576;&#1604;&#1608;&#1605;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1581;&#1575;&#1580;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575;.</p></li><li><p>&#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1606; &#1606;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1604;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1605;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610; &#1573;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; (&#1603;&#1605; &#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1644; &#1603;&#1605; &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1610;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1570;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1593;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1606;&#1602;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1606;&#1604;&#1608;&#1580;&#1610;&#1575;) &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; (&#1573;&#1606; &#1608;&#1580;&#1583;&#1578;!) </p></li></ul><h3>&#1637;-&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1586;&#1610;&#1583; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1610;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601; &#1605;&#1610;&#1586;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;&#1567; </h3><ul><li><p>&#1575;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1586;&#1610;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581;&#1607; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1607; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604; &#1571;&#1610; &#1591;&#1585;&#1601; &#1570;&#1582;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606;&#1590;&#1608;&#1610; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1586;&#1610;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1604;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1589;&#1604;&#1567; </p></li><li><p>&#1610;&#1601;&#1585;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1603;&#1604; &#1637; &#1587;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; "&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#8220; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601;!</p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1604;&#1606; &#1571;&#1586;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1601;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1575;&#1593;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606;&#1610; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1585;&#1608;&#1580; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1606;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583; &#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1602;&#1591;&#1577;: &#1607;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1601;&#1610;&#1583; &#1604;&#1603; &#1571;&#1605; &#1604;&#1575;&#1567; &#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1601;&#1610;&#1583; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1605;&#1644; &#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1602;&#1575;&#1569; &#1576;&#1607;&#1585;&#1580;&#1577;&#1611;&#1567;!</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1636;.&#1635; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1606;&#1589;&#1575;&#1611; "&#1587;&#1578;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1591;&#1585;&#1601; <strong>&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; </strong>&#1610;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1608;&#1586; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1575;&#1607;&#1606;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1587;&#1578;&#1580;&#1587;&#1583; &#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1605;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1604;&#1607;&#1644; &#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610; &#1605;&#1587;&#1572;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1608;&#1573;&#1606; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1605;&#1578;&#1576;&#1575;&#1610;&#1606;&#1607; &#1608;&#1602;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1644; &#1601;&#1610; &#1590;&#1608;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1592;&#1585;&#1608;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577;" </p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1602;&#1604;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610; ! &#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1578;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1587;&#1585;&#1593;&#1577; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1605;&#1604; ! &#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1602;&#1604;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1605;&#1587;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1576;&#1607; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577;</p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1644; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1573;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1607;&#1610; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574;&#8230; &#1608;&#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633; &#1578;&#1593;&#1607;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1633;-&#1634;&#1642; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1607;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1633;-&#1634;&#1642; &#1578;&#1615;&#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1601;&#1610; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1576;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1604;&#1608; &#1578;&#1605; &#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1593; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1607;&#1610; &#1634;&#1639;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1644; &#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; <strong>&#8220;&#1610;&#1602;&#1604;&#1604;&#8221;</strong> &#1634;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606; &#1634;&#1639;&#1632; = &#1637;.&#1636; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1608;&#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610; &#1634;&#1639;&#1632; - &#1637;.&#1636; = &#1634;&#1638;&#1636;.&#1638; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632;.</p></li><li><p>&#1576;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1591;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1634;&#1638;&#1636;.&#1638; &#1575;&#1608; &#1571;&#1602;&#1604; &#1601;&#1607;&#1608; &#1605;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1615;&#1578;&#1593;&#1607;&#1583; &#1576;&#1607; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1633;-&#1634;&#1642;&#1548; &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1576;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633; ! &#1576;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1576;&#1602;&#1578; &#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1606; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633; &#1608;&#1585;&#1594;&#1605; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;!</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1610;&#1578;&#1590;&#1581;&#1644; &#1571;&#1606;&#1614; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1607;&#1608; &#1605;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1576;&#1583;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1634;&#1639;&#1632; &#1605;&#1606; &#1634;&#1632;&#1633; &#1604;&#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1634;&#1638;&#1636;.&#1636; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574; &#1571;&#1608; &#1571;&#1602;&#1604; &#1593;&#1608;&#1590;&#1575; &#1593;&#1606; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603;! </p></li><li><p>&#1602;&#1583; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1604;&#1644; &#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1576;&#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1604;&#1604;&#1602;&#1590;&#1575;&#1569; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1581;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; (zero flaring)&#1644; &#1601;&#1606;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581; &#1571;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1578;&#1615;&#1593;&#1578;&#1576;&#1585; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1607;&#1605; &#1608;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1607; &#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1601;&#1610; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591;! &#1601;&#1604;&#1608; &#1582;&#1601;&#1590;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1608;&#1578;&#1605; &#1573;&#1601;&#1578;&#1578;&#1575;&#1581; &#1634;&#1632; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1573;&#1587;&#1605;&#1606;&#1578; &#1608;&#1634;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1591;&#1575;&#1576;&#1608;&#1602; &#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1644; &#1571;&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1573;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575;&#1567; &#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575; &#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1590;&#1610; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1601;&#1610; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;.</p></li><li><p>&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1604;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601; &#1605;&#1610;&#1586;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1573;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1605;&#1589;&#1604;&#1581;&#1577; &#1573;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1573;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1594;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#8230; &#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1605;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1569; &#1608;&#1573;&#1606; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1608; &#1610;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1606;&#1592;&#1610;&#1601;&#1577;&#1644; &#1601;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1576;&#1587;&#1576;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1576;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1608;&#1573;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1585;&#1582;&#1589; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1605;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1573;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#8230; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1607;&#1610; &#1606;&#1578;&#1610;&#1580;&#1577; &#1593;&#1585;&#1590;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1593;&#1610;&#1576;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1601;&#1610;&#1583; &#1578;&#1587;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1608;&#1585; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1607;&#1610;. </p></li></ul><h3>&#1638;-&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1604;&#1605; &#1605;&#1576;&#1604;&#1594; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1607;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633;&#1567; </h3><ul><li><p>&#1581;&#1583;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633; &#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1633;&#1635;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1585;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1633;-&#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632;&#1548; &#1601;&#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1610;&#1591;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576; &#1576;&#1583;&#1593;&#1605; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1603;&#1604;&#1610; &#1605;&#1602;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585;&#1607; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1584;&#1603;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1571;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1605;&#1584;&#1580;&#1577; Modelling &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581;&#1577; &#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; (&#1585;&#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1604;&#1594;&#1610;&#1575;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1602;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575;) &#1575;&#1608; &#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1587;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1578;&#1581;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1593;&#1588;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610; &#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1582;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1593;&#1607; &#1608;&#1578;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585; &#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1585;&#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;.</p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1608; &#1601;&#1585;&#1590;&#1606;&#1575; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1607;&#1610; &#1634;&#1639;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574;&#1548; &#1608;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1633;&#1635;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1587;&#1575;&#1608;&#1610; = &#1635;&#1637; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574;&#1548; &#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1576;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1609; &#1571;&#1582;&#1585; &#1575;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1589;&#1608;&#1604; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610; &#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1569; "&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#8221; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1605;&#1602;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585; &#1635;&#1637; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574;!</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1575;&#1606; &#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1606; &#1605;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575;&#1581;&#1583; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1607;&#1608; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; \ &#1635;&#1637; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; = <strong>&#1634;&#1640;&#1637;&#1639; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610;</strong> &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1591;&#1606; &#1605;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; ! &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1591;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1582; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1591;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575;&#1581;&#1583;.</p></li><li><p>&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1585; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1603;&#1585; &#1575;&#1606; &#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; (&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1610;) &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1581;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1608;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1608;&#1586; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1591;&#1606; &#1608;&#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1593;&#1575;&#1585; &#1633;&#1632;-&#1634;&#1632; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1548; &#1601;&#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1569;&#1575; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1591;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576; &#1576; &#1634;&#1640;&#1637;&#1639; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;&#1567;!!</p></li><li><p>&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1575;&#1606; &#1605;&#1575; &#1591;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576; &#1576;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1607;&#1608; &#1610;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; <strong>&#1634;&#1640; &#1590;&#1593;&#1601;</strong> &#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1591;&#1606; &#1608;&#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1610;&#1578;&#1590;&#1581; &#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1593;&#1588;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593;&#1610; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1603;&#1571;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1591;&#1606; &#1584;&#1607;&#1576; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1610; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1571;&#1582;&#1585; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1606;&#1583; &#1608;&#1606;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577;</p></li><li><p>&#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1602;&#1610;&#1585;&#1577; &#1608;&#1610;&#1606;&#1578;&#1580; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1590;&#1593;&#1601; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; &#1587;&#1604;&#1593;&#1577; Elastic &#1605;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1576;&#1587;&#1607;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1606; &#1571;&#1585;&#1582;&#1589; &#1578;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; </p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1606; &#1605;&#1575; &#1591;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576; &#1576;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1604; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610; NCQG &#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1577; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1581;&#1583;&#1607; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1633;&#1632;&#1641; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1588;&#1610;&#1574; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1578;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585;&#1607;! </p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1608; &#1578;&#1605; &#1589;&#1610;&#1575;&#1594;&#1577; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1603;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1610;&#1588;&#1605;&#1604; &#1603;&#1604; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1601;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1592;&#1610;&#1601;&#1577; (&#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1578;&#1589;&#1608;&#1585; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575; &#1603;&#1604; &#1605;&#1581;&#1591;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1578;&#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1592;&#1610;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1588;&#1610;&#1569; &#1605;&#1607;&#1608;&#1604;) &#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1585;&#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1578;&#1602;&#1576;&#1604;&#1607; &#1608;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1607; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1589;&#1575;&#1594; &#1603;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590;  &#1633;&#1635;&#1642; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1571;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602;&#1610; (&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1586;&#1583;&#1575;&#1583; &#1576;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;)</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1585;&#1594;&#1605; &#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1585;&#1607;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1575;&#1581;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575; &#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1605; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575; &#1571;&#1594;&#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1569; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1610;&#1583;&#1601;&#1593;&#1608;&#1575; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1633;&#1635;&#1642; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1639;-&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1578;&#1615;&#1593;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1607;&#1610; &#1571;&#1607;&#1605; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1577; &#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577;&#1567; &#1608;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1605; &#1578;&#1604;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567; </h3><ul><li><p>&#1583;&#1575;&#1582;&#1604;&#1610;&#1611;&#1575;: &#1578;&#1615;&#1593;&#1578;&#1576;&#1585; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1585;&#1580;&#1593;&#1611;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1589; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1610; &#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1608;&#1586; &#1605;&#1575; &#1605;&#1587;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577;! &#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1582;&#1591;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578;. &#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1548; &#1604;&#1608; &#1605;&#1591;&#1604;&#1608;&#1576; &#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1590; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1634;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1548; &#1608;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#1607; &#1636;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1601;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1588;&#1610;&#1569; &#1605;&#1607;&#1605; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1579;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1591;&#1604;&#1608;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601;. &#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1576;&#1607; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1582;&#1591;&#1585; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1587;&#1605;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;.</p></li><li><p>&#1582;&#1575;&#1585;&#1580;&#1610;&#1611;&#1575;: &#1578;&#1615;&#1592;&#1607;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1608;&#1578;&#1601;&#1578;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575;&#1576; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;. </p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;NDC &#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578; &#1605;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1571;&#1585;&#1602;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1578;&#1578;&#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1582;&#1591;&#1591;&#1611;&#1575; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1583;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1580;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577;&#1548; &#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577;&#1548; &#1573;&#1583;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1575;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1583;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577;&#8230; &#1573;&#1604;&#1582;.&#1608; &#1578;&#1608;&#1581;&#1617;&#1583; &#1580;&#1607;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1607;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1606;&#1581;&#1608; &#1585;&#1572;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1581;&#1583;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; (&#1589;&#1606;&#1583;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585;&#1548; &#1576;&#1606;&#1608;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606;&#1581;&#1608;&#1606;) &#1578;&#1593;&#1578;&#1605;&#1583; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1600;NDC &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; &#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;.&#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1581;&#1577;&#1548; &#1610;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1593;&#1576; &#1580;&#1584;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1571;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1581;.</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1606;&#1610;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575;&#1581;&#1579;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1585;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1591;&#1610;&#1593;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1600;NDC &#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1569;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1603;&#1608;&#1605;&#1577;: &#1607;&#1604; &#1578;&#1604;&#1578;&#1586;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1608;&#1593;&#1583;&#1578; &#1576;&#1607;&#1567; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1586;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1601;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1610;&#1586;&#1610;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1579;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1610;&#1606;.</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1610;&#1572;&#1579;&#1585; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1607;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1584;&#1575;&#1569;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1581;&#1577;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577;. &#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1600;NDC&#1548; &#1578;&#1590;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1582;&#1591;&#1591;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1575;&#1591;&#1585; &#1608;&#1581;&#1605;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1593;.</p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1605; &#1578;&#1604;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1608;&#1582;&#1589;&#1608;&#1589;&#1575; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610;&#1610;&#1606; &#1610;&#1592;&#1606;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577; &#1604;&#1608;&#1586;&#1575;&#1585;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1571;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575; &#1604;&#1605; &#1578;&#1604;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1607;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1586;&#1605;.</p></li></ul><h3>&#1640;-&#1605;&#1575; &#1607;&#1610; &#1601;&#1604;&#1587;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1585;&#1572;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587;&#1567; </h3><ul><li><p>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1582;&#1601;&#1609; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1606; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1608;&#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1610;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1571;&#1582;&#1584; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1581;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1608;&#1571;&#1606; &#1601;&#1604;&#1587;&#1601;&#1578;&#1607;&#1605; &#1607;&#1610; &#1575;&#1593;&#1591;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1608;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607; (&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;) &#1604;&#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1578;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1571;&#1602;&#1604;&#1548; &#1608;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1571;&#1602;&#1604; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1578;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1608;&#1571;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1602;&#1604;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1605;&#1593;&#1592;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1575;&#1578;&#1580;&#1607; &#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1590; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1610;&#1585; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1590;&#1585;&#1575;&#1585;. &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581; &#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1582;&#1591;&#1571;&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1608;&#1576;&#1587;&#1576;&#1576; &#1578;&#1608;&#1601;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1581;&#1579; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1575;&#1589;&#1604; &#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1592;&#1610;&#1601;&#1577; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1605;&#1587;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1591;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575;&#1581; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1608;&#1608;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575;&#1548; &#1578;&#1580;&#1583; &#1575;&#1606;&#1607; &#1571;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1589;&#1604;&#1581;&#1577; &#1603;&#1579;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1578;&#1606;&#1589;&#1610;&#1576; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1575;&#1578; &#1571;&#1589;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1571;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581;&#1578; &#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1586;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1606; &#1604;&#1605; &#1578;&#1603;&#1606; &#1571;&#1602;&#1604; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1606;&#1580;&#1583; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1589;&#1610;&#1606; &#1571;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583;&#1577; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1580;&#1575;&#1604; &#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1580;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1591;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1603;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1601;&#1585;&#1610;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1601;&#1590;&#1604;&#1575; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610;&#1577; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1608;&#1586;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1592;&#1610;&#1601;&#1577; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1601;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;. </p></li></ul><h3>&#1641;-&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1583;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1606; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1567; </h3><ul><li><p>&#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1575;&#1606; &#1571;&#1594;&#1604;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1607;&#1610; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1608;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; Energy and Resource Efficiency &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1571;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575; &#1594;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1575; &#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1607;&#1610; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1589;&#1604;&#1581;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575; &#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1608;&#1604;&#1608; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1576;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601; &#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1601;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1608; &#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1571;&#1593;&#1605;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;.</p></li><li><p> &#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1575;&#1582;&#1578;&#1606;&#1575;&#1602;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1576;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1604; &#1582;&#1587;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1576;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1583;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583; &#1608;&#1603;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1576;&#1577; &#1576;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1579;&#1604;&#1579; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1591;&#1575;&#1578; &#1584;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1585;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1587;&#1610;&#1591;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1585;&#1603;&#1576;&#1577; &#1605;&#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1587;&#1607;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; &#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1578;&#1580;&#1607;&#1610;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1574;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1576;&#1606;&#1601;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1608;&#1602;&#1578; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1603;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1594;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1581;&#1576;&#1548; &#1601;&#1604;&#1608; &#1602;&#1575;&#1604; &#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1604;&#1548; &#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1605;&#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1602;&#1575;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586;&#1548; &#1606;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1610;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1585;&#1580; (&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1587;&#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1581;&#1591;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569;) &#1576;&#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1608;&#1602;&#1548; &#1576;&#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;. &#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581; &#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1587;&#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1586;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1587;&#1578;&#1580;&#1583; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1601;&#1593;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; &#1575;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;.</p></li><li><p> &#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1601;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1610;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; <strong>&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1608;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577;</strong> &#1576;&#1594;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1604;&#1583;&#1577;. &#1608;&#1604;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1585;&#1580;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1601;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1605;&#1581;&#1576;&#1576; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605;&#1577;&#1548; &#1573;&#1604;&#1575; &#1575;&#1606;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1605;&#1606; &#1606;&#1575;&#1581;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1584;&#1575;&#1578; &#1580;&#1583;&#1608;&#1609; &#1576;&#1585;&#1601;&#1593; &#1603;&#1601;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1608;&#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1585;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577;&#1548; <strong>&#1601;&#1604;&#1608; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575;&#1567;!</strong></p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1610;&#1578;&#1590;&#1581; &#1571;&#1606;&#1607; <strong>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1604;&#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;</strong> &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; Additionality &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1571;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1604;&#1578;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1605;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1573;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1576;&#1604; &#1571;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1605;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1573;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575; &#1605;&#1606; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575;! </p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1608;&#1590;&#1610;&#1581; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585;&#1548; &#1571;&#1583;&#1606;&#1575;&#1607; &#1607;&#1610; &#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1605;&#1577; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1579;&#1575;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1610;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1580;&#1607;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587;&#1575;&#1585; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1577; &#1576; No Net Cost &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1548; &#1601;&#1573;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575; &#1606;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1576;&#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1576;&#1582;&#1587; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1608;&#1586; &#1633;&#1632; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590;. </p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kNJf!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F1efb7f04-2921-4ca1-9ea7-8e0c75959071_1346x585.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div 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&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1580;&#1583;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; (&#1633;-&#1634;)&#1642; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1578;&#1578;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606; &#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1634;&#1642;&#1548; &#1575;&#1584; &#1587;&#1610;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1578;&#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1589;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606;&#1603; &#1578;&#1578;&#1593;&#1605;&#1583; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1604;&#1603;&#1610; &#1578;&#1576;&#1610;&#1593;&#1548; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1578;&#1585;&#1610; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1576;&#1593;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1610;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1585; &#1608;&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1604;&#1606; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1593;&#1583;&#1605; &#1588;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1571;&#1610; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;!</p></li><li><p>&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1603;&#1587;&#1548; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1610;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; (&#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1607;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1574;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;) &#1571;&#1587;&#1607;&#1604; &#1604;&#1571;&#1606;&#1607; &#1587;&#1610;&#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1571;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605; &#1591;&#1585;&#1610;&#1602; &#1571;&#1587;&#1607;&#1604; &#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1601;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1593;&#1603;&#1587; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1585;&#1608;&#1580;&#1607; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1575;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610;&#1606; &#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607;&#1605; &#1571;&#1610; &#1582;&#1576;&#1585;&#1577; &#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1571;&#1576;&#1581;&#1575;&#1579; &#1605;&#1606;&#1588;&#1608;&#1585;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1580;&#1575;&#1604;. </p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1605;&#1586;&#1610;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1593;&#1604;&#1608;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1589;&#1610;&#1604; &#1576;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1571;&#1606;&#1548; &#1610;&#1585;&#1580;&#1609; &#1602;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;&#1577; &#1576;&#1581;&#1579;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1588;&#1608;&#1585; <a href="https://www.cambridge.org/engage/coe/article-details/65afad839138d231618d609b">&#1607;&#1606;&#1575;</a></p></li></ul><h3>&#1633;&#1632;-&#1607;&#1604; &#1586;&#1610;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1610;&#1572;&#1583;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567; </h3><ul><li><p>&#1610;&#1588;&#1610;&#1585; &#1589;&#1606;&#1583;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585; GCF &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1606;&#1614; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604;&#1607;&#1575; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1575;&#1601;&#1602;&#1577; &#1605;&#1593; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1610;&#1591;&#1604;&#1576; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1578;&#1615;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1576;&#1610;&#1575;&#1606; &#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1578;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605; &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1607;&#1583;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; (&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601;).</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1573;&#1584;&#1575; &#1605;&#1575; &#1606;&#1592;&#1585;&#1606;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1603;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1604;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1589;&#1606;&#1583;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1606; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1606;&#1610;&#1580;&#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1603;&#1575;&#1586;&#1575;&#1582;&#1587;&#1578;&#1575;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1586;&#1575;&#1574;&#1585;, &#1608;&#1607;&#1605; &#1576;&#1606;&#1601;&#1587; &#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1608;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1589;&#1606;&#1610;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; (&#1583;&#1582;&#1604; &#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1587;&#1591; &#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609;)  &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1583;&#1606;&#1575;&#1607; &#1606;&#1580;&#1583; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1602;&#1591;&#1593; &#1588;&#1608;&#1591;&#1575;&#1611; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1575;&#1604; 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&#1575;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1591;&#1605;&#1608;&#1581;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;!</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4bG5!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0facba74-9b60-4d0c-bd56-38df227c2362_725x299.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4bG5!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F0facba74-9b60-4d0c-bd56-38df227c2362_725x299.png 424w, 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&#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1603;&#1587; &#1605;&#1605;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1588;&#1575;&#1574;&#1593; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1582;&#1576;. </p></li></ul><h3>&#1633;&#1633;- &#1605;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1589;&#1608;&#1583; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1593;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1579; &#1593;&#1606; &#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1582;&#1590;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602;&#1567; &#1608;&#1607;&#1604; &#1607;&#1608; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1589;&#1608;&#1583; &#1601;&#1610; &#1608;&#1579;&#1610;&#1602;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1583;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577;&#1567; </h3><ul><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1602;&#1589;&#1608;&#1583; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1601;&#1607;&#1605;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1575;&#1590;&#1593; &#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; <strong>&#8220;&#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#8221;</strong> &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610; &#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604; &#1633;&#1632; &#1587;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1602;&#1575;&#1583;&#1605;&#1577; (&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1637;-&#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637;) &#1576;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593; &#1633;&#1632; 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&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1589;&#1575;&#1581;&#1576; &#1601;&#1610; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1605;&#1575;&#1548; &#1601;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1583;&#1582;&#1604; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1581;&#1587;&#1575;&#1576; &#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1608;&#1607;&#1603;&#1584;&#1575;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1576;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1578;&#1590;&#1581; &#1575;&#1606; <strong>&#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1604;&#1575; &#1593;&#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1577; &#1604;&#1607; &#1576;&#1589;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1581; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;</strong>&#1548; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1604;&#1606; 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&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1571;&#1608; &#1573;&#1580;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1601; &#1573;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1582;&#1604;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1580;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577;&#1548; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1587;&#1578;&#1606;&#1575;&#1583;&#1611;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1580;&#1607;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1582;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578;.&#1608;&#1576;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1610;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1608;&#1602;&#1593;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; (&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569;&#1548; &#1589;&#1606;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577;&#1548; &#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1608;&#1594;&#1575;&#1586;&#1548; &#1606;&#1602;&#1604;&#1548; &#1576;&#1606;&#1575;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1586;&#1585;&#1575;&#1593;&#1577;&#1548; &#1606;&#1601;&#1575;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578;&#1548; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;) &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1610;&#1615;&#1588;&#1578;&#1602; &#1593;&#1576;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1605;&#1584;&#1580;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1592;&#1585;&#1608;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583; &#1605;&#1606; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1593;&#1583;&#1583; 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&#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1633;-&#1634;&#1642; </p></li><li><p>&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1610;&#1576; &#1581;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1606; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1588;&#1582;&#1575;&#1589; &#1604;&#1605; &#1610;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587; &#1608;&#1575;&#1581;&#1583; &#1601;&#1610; &#1578;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1582;&#1607;&#1605; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1585;&#1601;&#1608;&#1575; &#1603;&#1610;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1607; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607;&#1605; &#1571;&#1610; &#1576;&#1581;&#1579; &#1610;&#1587;&#1578;&#1582;&#1583;&#1605;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607; &#1587;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1608; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1548; &#1579;&#1605; &#1610;&#1606;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606; &#1607;&#1608; 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div></li></ul><h3>&#1633;&#1635;- &#1607;&#1604; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; &#1576;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;&#1567; &#1608;&#1571;&#1606;&#1614; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; &#1587;&#1608;&#1605;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583;&#1577;&#1567; </h3><ul><li><p><strong>&#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;</strong> &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1587;&#1610;&#1590;&#1604; &#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1602;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577; &#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1573;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1610;&#1576; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1593;&#1610;&#1583;.</p></li><li><p>&#1576;&#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575; &#1606;&#1602;&#1589;&#1583; &#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; <strong>&#1576;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1581;</strong>! &#1576;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1609; &#1603;&#1605; &#1610;&#1615;&#1587;&#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1593;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1589;&#1575;&#1601;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1583;&#1582;&#1604; &#1605;&#1610;&#1586;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1593;&#1604;.</p></li><li><p>&#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577;&#1548; &#1593;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; (&#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1608;&#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;) &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1571;&#1606; &#1610;&#1593;&#1608;&#1583; &#1605;&#1593;&#1592;&#1605; &#1585;&#1610;&#1593;&#1607;&#1575; (&#1641;&#1632;&#1642;) &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1585; &#1575;&#1608; &#1589;&#1575;&#1581;&#1576; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1610; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1573;&#1604;&#1575; &#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1607;&#1610; &#1589;&#1575;&#1581;&#1576;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1605;&#1593;&#1605;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1604;&#1583;&#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1578;&#1588;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1590;&#1608;&#1593; &#1605;&#1579;&#1604; &#1603;&#1610;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575; &#1608;&#1594;&#1575;&#1606;&#1575; &#1608;&#1594;&#1610;&#1585;&#1607;&#1575;.</p></li><li><p>&#1593;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1577; &#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610; &#1576;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606;&#1577; &#1578;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1604;&#1573;&#1580;&#1576;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1604;&#1608;&#1579;&#1577; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1605;&#1591;&#1604;&#1608;&#1576; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1605;&#1548; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1578;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1588;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593;&#1575;&#1578; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1575;&#1583;&#1587; &#1604;&#1573;&#1578;&#1601;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1587; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1606;&#1575;&#1582;</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1605;&#1606; &#1602;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1607;&#1610; &#1580;&#1593;&#1604; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1610; &#1602;&#1575;&#1576;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1606;&#1601;&#1610;&#1584; &#1576;&#1583;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1578;&#1593;&#1585;&#1602;&#1604;. &#1601;&#1605;&#1579;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1608;&#1571;&#1606; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1610; &#1575;&#1608; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1578;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1637;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;&#1548; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1610;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1605;&#1576;&#1583;&#1571; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; (&#1605;&#1593; &#1593;&#1583;&#1577; &#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1591; &#1571;&#1582;&#1585;&#1609;)&#1548; &#1601;&#1585;&#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1591;&#1608;&#1604; &#1593;&#1605;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1610;&#1608;&#1601;&#1585; &#1633;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1604;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1585; &#1608;&#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1578;&#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1633;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591; &#1605;&#1606; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1578;&#1594;&#1591;&#1610;&#1577; &#1603;&#1604; &#1603;&#1604;&#1601;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593;! &#1579;&#1605; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1604;&#1575;&#1581;&#1592; &#1571;&#1606;&#1611; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1607;&#1608; &#1604;&#1589;&#1575;&#1581;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1588;&#1585;&#1608;&#1593; &#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1569; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1608; &#1605;&#1587;&#1578;&#1579;&#1605;&#1585; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1578;&#1571;&#1582;&#1584; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1604;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1581;&#1587;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1571;&#1604;&#1577; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1602;&#1575;&#1605;&#1548; &#1610;&#1581;&#1602;&#1602; &#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1575; &#1602;&#1610;&#1605;&#1578;&#1607; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610; &#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1610;&#1606;&#1605;&#1575; &#1602;&#1610;&#1605;&#1577; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1576;&#1581; &#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575; &#1607;&#1608; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; (&#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;!) &#1605;&#1606; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606;&#1607;&#1575; &#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1578;&#1581;&#1575;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1608;&#1585;&#1576;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1607;&#1608; &#1571;&#1603;&#1576;&#1585; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;!&#1548; &#1578;&#1584;&#1603;&#1585; &#1575;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1604;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1589;&#1610;&#1606;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1610; &#1604;&#1606; &#1610;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607;&#1575; &#1608;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;! &#1608;&#1604;&#1606; &#1610;&#1606;&#1575;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1571;&#1610; &#1581;&#1589;&#1577;.</p></li><li><p>&#1601;&#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1578;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1602; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1604; &#1633;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1581;&#1578;&#1609; &#1578;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591; &#1567;!</p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1585;&#1590; &#1571;&#1606;&#1611; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1601;&#1610; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1607;&#1610; &#1634;&#1639;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574;&#1548; &#1608;&#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1587;&#1610;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1588;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610;&#1593; &#1578;&#1581;&#1587;&#1610;&#1606; &#1576;&#1610;&#1574;&#1610; &#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1576;&#1606;&#1587;&#1576;&#1577; &#1635;&#1632;&#1642; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1571;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1593;&#1607;&#1583; &#1576;&#1607; &#1590;&#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1587;&#1575;&#1607;&#1605;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1591;&#1606;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1548; &#1571;&#1610; &#1605;&#1575; &#1610;&#1593;&#1575;&#1583;&#1604; &#1635;&#1632;&#1642; &#1605;&#1590;&#1585;&#1608;&#1576;&#1575; &#1576; &#1634;&#1639;&#1632; = &#1640;&#1633; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1605;&#1603;&#1575;&#1601;&#1574;. &#1608;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1585;&#1590; &#1571;&#1606; &#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1606; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604; &#1610;&#1587;&#1575;&#1608;&#1610; &#1637;&#1632; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1604;&#1604;&#1591;&#1606; (&#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1603;&#1576;&#1610;&#1585;) &#1548; &#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1575;&#1606; &#1581;&#1580;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1576;&#1610;&#1593; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1581;&#1583; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1607;&#1610; = &#1637;&#1632; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1605;&#1590;&#1585;&#1608;&#1576;&#1575; &#1576; &#1640;&#1633; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1591;&#1606; = &#1636;.&#1632;&#1637; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1575;&#1605;&#1585;&#1610;&#1603;&#1610; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1576;&#1605;&#1593;&#1606;&#1609; &#1571;&#1602;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1632;.&#1640; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; (&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;).</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1610;&#1578;&#1590;&#1581; &#1571;&#1606;&#1611; &#1571;&#1602;&#1589;&#1609; &#1571;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1581; &#1575;&#1608; &#1593;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1608;&#1590;&#1608;&#1593; &#1587;&#1606;&#1583;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580;&#1585;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1604;&#1606; &#1578;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1608;&#1586; &#1633; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1632; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604;</p></li><li><p><strong>&#1608;&#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1602;&#1591;&#1593;&#1575;&#1611; &#1608;&#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1592;&#1585;&#1608;&#1601; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1589;&#1576;&#1581; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1577; &#1604;&#1573;&#1602;&#1578;&#1589;&#1575;&#1583;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1583;&#1610;&#1604; &#1593;&#1606; &#1587;&#1608;&#1605;&#1608; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1601;&#1591;!</strong></p></li></ul><h3>&#1633;&#1636;- &#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1567; </h3><ul><li><p>&#1571;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1611;&#1548; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1588;&#1610;&#1574; &#1580;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1608;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1571;&#1594;&#1604;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1604;&#1583;&#1610;&#1606;&#1575; &#1582;&#1576;&#1585;&#1575;&#1569; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1608;&#1590;&#1608;&#1593; &#1605;&#1605;&#1606; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;&#1608;&#1575; &#1601;&#1610;&#1607; &#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1575; &#1608;&#1610;&#1581;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580; &#1608;&#1602;&#1578; &#1605;&#1606; &#1634;-&#1635; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1601;&#1602;&#1591; &#1604;&#1601;&#1607;&#1605; &#1603;&#1610;&#1601; &#1610;&#1578;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1585; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1575;&#1590;&#1575;&#1601;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1609; &#1578;&#1583;&#1585;&#1610;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1608;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604; &#1605;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1605;&#1585;&#1608;&#1576;&#1584;&#1604;&#1603; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1605;&#1603;&#1606; &#1576;&#1571;&#1610; &#1581;&#1575;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1581;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1603;&#1608;&#1606; &#1604;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1634;&#1632;&#1634;&#1639; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1592;&#1585;&#1608;&#1601;</p></li><li><p>&#1571;&#1606;&#1608;&#1575;&#1593; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1607;&#1610; &#1635; &#1603;&#1605;&#1575; &#1601;&#1589;&#1604;&#1578;&#1607;&#1575; &#1587;&#1575;&#1576;&#1602;&#1575;&#1611; &#1548; &#1575;&#1606;&#1592;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1588;&#1603;&#1604;:</p></li></ul><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img" target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rXL0!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6000a087-12ad-4824-b945-ce85408654f9_1080x1010.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" 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src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!rXL0!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6000a087-12ad-4824-b945-ce85408654f9_1080x1010.png" width="1080" height="1010" 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class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a></figure></div><ul><li><p>&#1575;&#1584;&#1606; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1581;&#1583;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1576;&#1583;&#1575;&#1610;&#1577;&#1611; &#1605;&#1575;&#1584;&#1575; &#1610;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1590;&#1576;&#1591; &#1607;&#1604; &#1607;&#1608; &#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1573;&#1580;&#1576;&#1575;&#1585;&#1610; &#1571;&#1605; &#1591;&#1608;&#1593;&#1610;&#1567; </p></li><li><p>&#1579;&#1605; &#1610;&#1580;&#1576; &#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1637; &#1571;&#1588;&#1610;&#1575;&#1569; &#1605;&#1593;&#1602;&#1583;&#1577; &#1608;&#1605;&#1578;&#1586;&#1575;&#1605;&#1606;&#1577; &#1608;&#1607;&#1610;: &#1633;-&#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1583;&#1582;&#1608;&#1604; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1634;- &#1578;&#1581;&#1583;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1610;&#1576; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1610; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1607;&#1610;&#1603;&#1604;&#1610; &#1604;&#1604;&#1580;&#1607;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1605;&#1604;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1635;- &#1573;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1575;&#1604;&#1581;&#1608;&#1603;&#1605;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1604;&#1575;&#1586;&#1605;&#1577;&#1548; &#1636;- &#1573;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1607;&#1610;&#1574;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1601;&#1606;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1582;&#1578;&#1589;&#1577; &#1576;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;&#1548; &#1637;- &#1573;&#1606;&#1588;&#1575;&#1569; &#1571;&#1587;&#1575;&#1587;&#1610;&#1575;&#1578; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1591;&#1576;&#1610;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1601;&#1593;&#1604;&#1610; &#1604;&#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606;. &#1593;&#1583;&#1575; &#1584;&#1604;&#1603;&#1548; &#1601;&#1607;&#1608; &#1605;&#1580;&#1585;&#1583; &#1593;&#1576;&#1579; &#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1594;&#1606;&#1610; &#1608;&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1587;&#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606; &#1580;&#1608;&#1593;. </p></li><li><p>&#1604;&#1575; &#1610;&#1608;&#1580;&#1583; &#1571;&#1610; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605; &#1571;&#1606;&#1588;&#1571;&#1578; &#1587;&#1608;&#1602; &#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1575;&#1608; &#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583; &#1575;&#1606; &#1578;&#1578;&#1575;&#1580;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1571;&#1587;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1585;&#1576;&#1608;&#1606; &#1576;&#1571;&#1602;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1635;-&#1637; &#1587;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; &#1593;&#1605;&#1604;! </p></li></ul><h3>&#1633;&#1637;- &#1607;&#1583;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1610;NCQG &#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1571;&#1615;&#1602;&#1585; &#1601;&#1610; &#1605;&#1572;&#1578;&#1605;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1571;&#1591;&#1585;&#1575;&#1601; &#1575;&#1604;&#1634;&#1641; &#1601;&#1610; &#1576;&#1575;&#1603;&#1608; &#1576;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593; &#1635;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1603;&#1604; &#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604;! &#1608;&#1603;&#1604;&#1607; &#1602;&#1585;&#1608;&#1590;</h3><ul><li><p>&#1589;&#1581;&#1610;&#1581; &#1571;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1615;&#1602;&#1585; &#1635;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; &#1607;&#1608; &#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604; &#1605;&#1602;&#1575;&#1585;&#1606;&#1577; &#1576;&#1605;&#1575; &#1578;&#1591;&#1604;&#1576;&#1607; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1608;&#1575;&#1604;&#1584;&#1610; &#1610;&#1578;&#1580;&#1575;&#1608;&#1586; &#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1587;&#1606;&#1608;&#1610;&#1575;&#1611; </p></li><li><p>&#1603;&#1575;&#1606; &#1610;&#1581;&#1576; &#1571;&#1606; &#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1578;&#1602;&#1583;&#1605;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1575;&#1583;&#1585;&#1577; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1593;&#1605; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610; &#1571;&#1603;&#1579;&#1585; &#1605;&#1606; &#1635;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1608;&#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1588;&#1603;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606;&#1581; &#1608;&#1604;&#1610;&#1587; &#1602;&#1585;&#1608;&#1590; &#1575;&#1608; &#1605;&#1606; &#1571;&#1605;&#1608;&#1575;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1582;&#1575;&#1589;</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1604;&#1603;&#1606; &#1603;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1607;&#1606;&#1575;&#1603; &#1576;&#1593;&#1590; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1585;&#1575;&#1587;&#1575;&#1578; &#1578;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1571;&#1606; &#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1585;&#1602;&#1605; &#1610;&#1603;&#1601;&#1610; &#1604;&#1578;&#1582;&#1601;&#1610;&#1590; &#1575;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1601;&#1610; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1548; &#1610;&#1593;&#1606;&#1610; &#1582;&#1601;&#1590; &#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1573;&#1606;&#1576;&#1593;&#1575;&#1579;&#1575;&#1578; &#1601;&#1610; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1578;&#1605;&#1575;&#1605;&#1575;&#1611; &#1602;&#1576;&#1604; &#1634;&#1632;&#1635;&#1637; &#1604;&#1603;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1576;&#1607;&#1584;&#1575; &#1575;&#1604;&#1605;&#1576;&#1604;&#1594; &#1576;&#1604; &#1576;&#1571;&#1602;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606;&#1607; (&#1635;&#1632;&#1632; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; *&#1633;&#1632; &#1587;&#1606;&#1610;&#1606; = &#1635; &#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1604;&#1610;&#1608;&#1606; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585;)</p></li><li><p>&#1575;&#1581;&#1578;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1578;&#1585;&#1578;&#1610;&#1576;&#1575;&#1611; &#1641; &#1605;&#1606; &#1633;&#1632;&#1641; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1577; &#1606;&#1575;&#1605;&#1610;&#1577; &#1605;&#1606; &#1581;&#1610;&#1579; &#1571;&#1581;&#1602;&#1610;&#1577; &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1605;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1576;&#1608;&#1575;&#1602;&#1593; &#1634;&#1639; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1606;&#1577; &#1604;&#1594;&#1585;&#1590; &#1578;&#1581;&#1608;&#1610;&#1604; &#1603;&#1604; &#1605;&#1581;&#1591;&#1575;&#1578; &#1602;&#1591;&#1575;&#1593; &#1575;&#1604;&#1603;&#1607;&#1585;&#1576;&#1575;&#1569; &#1601;&#1610; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1604;&#1578;&#1593;&#1605;&#1604; &#1576;&#1583;&#1608;&#1606; &#1608;&#1602;&#1608;&#1583; &#1571;&#1581;&#1601;&#1608;&#1585;&#1610;!</p></li><li><p>&#1581;&#1589;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1572;&#1582;&#1585;&#1575;&#1611; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1606;&#1589;&#1601; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1604;&#1588;&#1585;&#1603;&#1577; &#1594;&#1575;&#1586;&#1575;&#1604;&#1576;&#1589;&#1585;&#1577; &#1602;&#1585;&#1590;&#1575;&#1611; &#1605;&#1606; &#1605;&#1572;&#1587;&#1587;&#1577; IFC &#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1575;&#1576;&#1593;&#1577; &#1604;&#1604;&#1576;&#1606;&#1603; &#1575;&#1604;&#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1610; &#1608;&#1607;&#1608; &#1576;&#1575;&#1604;&#1578;&#1571;&#1603;&#1610;&#1583; &#1587;&#1610;&#1615;&#1581;&#1587;&#1576; &#1593;&#1604;&#1609; &#1575;&#1604;&#1593;&#1585;&#1575;&#1602; &#1605;&#1606; &#1581;&#1589;&#1577; NCQG</p></li><li><p>&#1608;&#1602;&#1583; &#1610;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604; &#1602;&#1575;&#1574;&#1604; &#1575;&#1606; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1590; &#1594;&#1610;&#1585; &#1605;&#1601;&#1610;&#1583; &#1608;&#1607;&#1606;&#1575; &#1606;&#1602;&#1608;&#1604;:</p><p>&#1633;- &#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1589;&#1601; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1576;&#1602;&#1585;&#1590; &#1605;&#1610;&#1587;&#1585; (&#1601;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1602;&#1604;&#1610;&#1604;&#1577;) &#1575;&#1601;&#1590;&#1604; &#1605;&#1606; &#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1610;&#1604; &#1606;&#1601;&#1587; &#1575;&#1604;&#1602;&#1585;&#1590; &#1576;&#1601;&#1608;&#1575;&#1574;&#1583; &#1593;&#1575;&#1604;&#1610;&#1577; (&#1576;&#1587;&#1593;&#1585; &#1575;&#1604;&#1587;&#1608;&#1602;)</p><p>&#1634;- &#1578;&#1581;&#1589;&#1610;&#1604; &#1575;&#1604;&#1606;&#1589;&#1601; &#1605;&#1604;&#1610;&#1575;&#1585; &#1583;&#1608;&#1604;&#1575;&#1585; &#1576;&#1602;&#1585;&#1590; &#1581;&#1587;&#1606; &#1608;&#1575;&#1606;&#1578; &#1578;&#1585;&#1610;&#1583;&#1607; &#1575;&#1581;&#1587;&#1606; &#1605;&#1606; 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!</p></li></ul><p>&#1583;. &#1571;&#1581;&#1605;&#1583; &#1603;&#1614;&#1610;&#1604;&#1575;&#1606;&#1610;</p>]]></content:encoded></item><item><title><![CDATA[Global remaining carbon budgets based on CBDR-RC principles]]></title><description><![CDATA[With a specfic focus on Iraq.]]></description><link>https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/global-remaining-carbon-budgets-based</link><guid isPermaLink="false">https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/global-remaining-carbon-budgets-based</guid><dc:creator><![CDATA[Ahmed Gailani - أحمد گيلاني]]></dc:creator><pubDate>Tue, 23 Sep 2025 18:36:43 GMT</pubDate><enclosure url="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!kjK4!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F383d5cf5-46ce-4bc0-b7fd-4a6fd7c71b63_1220x684.png" length="0" type="image/jpeg"/><content:encoded><![CDATA[<p><strong>Disclaimer: </strong>All analysis in this post is based on the data provided in Nature Communications paper below:</p><p>Li, M., Pelz, S., Lamboll, R. <em>et al.</em> <a href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-025-56397-6#citeas">A principle-based framework to determine countries&#8217; fair warming contributions to the Paris Agreement</a>. <em>Nat Commun</em> <strong>16</strong>, 1043 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-025-56397-6 </p><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Thanks for reading Ahmed&#8217;s Substack! Subscribe for free to receive new posts and support my work.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div><h1>1.Introduction </h1><p>Countries agreed to pursue well-below 2 &#176;C and to strive for 1.5 &#176;C Paris Agreement targets <em>on the basis of equity</em> and mindful of different national circumstances. This Paris Agreement&#8217;s fairness compass called <strong>Common but Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR-RC). </strong>However,<strong> </strong>translating that principle into numbers&#8212;<em>who should do how much, and why</em>&#8212;has always been contentious, especially once you count not only CO&#8322; but also powerful non-CO&#8322; gases like methane.</p><p>The above paper sets out to make CBDR-RC operational by building a <strong>principle-based, transparent framework</strong> that allocates each country a fair share of the <em>global warming budget</em>&#8212;that is, how much additional <strong>warming</strong> (not just CO&#8322;) the world can still afford before 2050 and how much of that each country has already &#8220;used up.&#8221;</p><h1>2.Method used</h1><p>The method used in the paper to translate CBDR-RC into numbers can be summarised as:</p><ul><li><p><strong>Set the global warming budget (1850&#8594;2050).</strong><br>Start from the temperature limit (e.g., 1.5 &#176;C median) and remove the <strong>aerosol masking</strong> (the cooling from air pollution) expected at peak warming. What&#8217;s left is the allowable <em>GHG-caused warming</em> to 2050. </p></li><li><p><strong>Give everyone an equal slice (equality principle).</strong><br>Allocate that global warming budget <em>per person</em> using projected <strong>2050 population</strong>&#8212;every person is treated as having an equal right to the atmosphere. Summing per-person shares gives each country&#8217;s <strong>initial national warming budget</strong>. </p></li><li><p><strong>Adjust for capabilities or benefits (optional, capped).</strong><br>Here the authors explore different <em>interpretations</em> of CBDR-RC by scaling those per-capita shares with national indicators, but <strong>cap</strong> extreme adjustments (beyond &#177;2 &#963;) to avoid outliers dominating. They implement three interpretations:</p><ul><li><p><strong>Interpretation I (Equality + Polluter Pays):</strong> No scaling&#8212;stick with per-capita equality; historical responsibility is handled in the next step. </p></li><li><p><strong>Interpretation II (Ability to Pay added):</strong> Scale per-capita shares so <strong>richer/stronger</strong> countries get <strong>less</strong> remaining budget. They test two indicators: <strong>10-year government bond yield</strong> (II-A) and <strong>GDP per capita</strong> (II-B). </p></li><li><p><strong>Interpretation III (Beneficiary Pays):</strong> Scale by <strong>historical fossil-fuel sales</strong> (a proxy for benefits gained from emitting). Higher past benefits &#8594; <strong>smaller</strong> remaining budget. Colonial histories are accounted for by attributing sales during colonisation to the colonial power (effect is modest overall). </p></li></ul></li><li><p><strong>Subtract each country&#8217;s historical contribution (Polluter Pays).</strong><br>Using the FaIR climate model and historical emissions (CO&#8322;, CH&#8324; via GWP*, N&#8322;O, F-gases; LULUCF excluded in the core result), the authors estimate each country&#8217;s <strong>marginal contribution to observed warming</strong> since a chosen start year. They test two ethically salient start dates: <strong>1850</strong> (industrial era proxy) and <strong>1990</strong> (post-IPCC-AR1 &#8220;no-excuse&#8221; date). Subtracting this historical warming from the country&#8217;s allocation yields its <strong>remaining 2022&#8211;2050 CO&#8322;-we budget</strong>. </p></li></ul><h1>3.Results </h1><p>I used <strong>Interpretation I (Equality + Polluter Pays) </strong>data to get the below results. The data only gives 2050 population data for countries, so this is used to derive the remaining total CO&#8322;-we budget for the period (2022-2050) by multiplying 2050 population by the remaining tCO&#8322;-we. This is likely to inflate the remaining total CO&#8322;-we budget for many countries as 2050 population is likely to be higher than 2022. However, this still offers meaningfull conclusion as all countries treated similarly. </p><p>As shown below, under 1.5 &#176;C  and <strong>Interpretation I</strong> with <strong>1850</strong> as the start year, the authors find <strong>86 countries</strong> had already used up their fair share by 2021. These include essentially all major developed economies. A similar pattern holds for <strong>2 &#176;C (67%)</strong>&#8212;negative remaining budgets remain common among very-high-HDI countries.</p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/xqbQG/2/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/937d2bb8-bf91-4af1-9ff6-25720d64c8d8_1220x174.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/914adde9-78a9-41c1-a65b-d53e7d0a8320_1220x294.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:175,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Number of countries with negative/positive remaining CO2-we budgets per capita (2022-2050)&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/xqbQG/2/" width="730" height="175" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><p></p><p>Use this map <strong>interactively </strong>to explore countries with positive remaining CO&#8322;-we budget for 2022-2050, remember these adjusted for population. </p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/2NUcQ/1/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/383d5cf5-46ce-4bc0-b7fd-4a6fd7c71b63_1220x684.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1ef16848-229b-458e-9ecd-944e0c4667d4_1220x806.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:412,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Countries with positive remaining CO&#8322;-we budget (2022&#8211;2050) in GtCO2-we&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/2NUcQ/1/" width="730" height="412" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><p></p><p>If we consider the remaining CO&#8322;-we budget for the top 20 countiries in terms of &#8216;per capita&#8217; only, then the below graph show these countries. </p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/RFMjz/2/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/1b8d7df5-781d-4e95-b63a-ee354eea4ba6_1220x1038.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/ae270bae-9b44-4603-a611-dba38556dd25_1220x1160.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:609,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Top 20 countries with the most negative remaining CO&#8322;-we budget per capita (2022&#8211;2050)&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/RFMjz/2/" width="730" height="609" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><p></p><p>However, a very different picture for the top 20 if we adjust for population with a dominant United States presence:</p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/0cs07/1/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/4a51bb1b-e7e2-4718-a25f-33c68774f413_1220x1038.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/5885b4d1-ba69-4c59-af3e-285889b5c0b3_1220x1160.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:609,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;&#8220;Top 20 countries with the most negative remaining CO&#8322;-we budget for  (2022&#8211;2050) in GtCO2-we.&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/0cs07/1/" width="730" height="609" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><p></p><p>If we then look into the top 20 countries with  positive remaining CO&#8322;-we budget, then unsurprisingly all global south:</p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/f4FO9/1/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/b4536cdd-1ebd-4709-b40a-e05d569d203e_1220x1038.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/92acacab-ad43-490a-adf7-550cf9f2f728_1220x1160.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:583,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Top 20 countries with the most positive remaining CO&#8322;-we budget per capita (2022&#8211;2050)&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/f4FO9/1/" width="730" height="583" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><p>And adjusted for population again gives a very different picture:</p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/8fbsa/1/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/a2b027ed-b571-42cf-acaf-52d3d7605039_1220x1038.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/34a0c364-4892-44a3-8d06-ccf5d879bc98_1220x1160.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:609,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Top 20 countries with the most positive remaining CO&#8322;-we budget per capita (2022&#8211;2050) in GtCO2-we&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/8fbsa/1/" width="730" height="609" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><h1><strong>4. Iraq position</strong></h1><p>Iraq is in the <strong>29th position</strong> globally out of 109 (positive remaining CO&#8322;-we budget only) with a budget allocation of 13.6 GtCO&#8322;-we. Assuming 28 years between 2022-2050 and interpolating linearily, resulting in nearly <strong>485 MtCO&#8322;-we in 2050</strong>, likly lower in early years due to higher population expected in 2050 (74 million). </p><p>Since Iraq&#8217;s population now is around 45m, and with a remaining tCO&#8322;-we budget per capita is 183 for 2022-2050, then its effective carbon budget now is around <strong>294</strong> <strong>MtCO&#8322;-we </strong>(183/28 * 45m<strong>).  </strong>This number is lower than Iraq&#8217;s current total emissions (in its GHG inventory) of around 203 <strong>MtCO&#8322;e in 2021. </strong></p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/SZdHr/1/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8662882e-31a0-4251-a380-21383ebf2f47_1220x1530.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/8cc8918b-20a4-4fe1-9de6-7c33ce90455b_1220x1652.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:815,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Top 29 countries with the most positive remaining CO&#8322;-we budget p (2022&#8211;2050) in GtCO2-we&quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/SZdHr/1/" width="730" height="815" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><p></p><p>Iraq ranks <strong>4th among Arab states</strong> in terms of the remaining carbon budget: </p><div id="datawrapper-iframe" class="datawrapper-wrap outer" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/NaK3p/1/&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0de729bb-06aa-4657-9c7e-7f0d8566c190_1220x1470.png&quot;,&quot;thumbnail_url_full&quot;:&quot;https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/0220242b-7ffe-4494-b3f2-6d8351ef559e_1220x1592.png&quot;,&quot;height&quot;:785,&quot;title&quot;:&quot;Top 29 countries with the most positive remaining CO&#8322;-we budget per capita (2022&#8211;2050) &quot;,&quot;description&quot;:&quot;Create interactive, responsive &amp; beautiful charts &#8212; no code required.&quot;}" data-component-name="DatawrapperToDOM"><iframe id="iframe-datawrapper" class="datawrapper-iframe" src="https://datawrapper.dwcdn.net/NaK3p/1/" width="730" height="785" frameborder="0" scrolling="no"></iframe><script type="text/javascript">!function(){"use strict";window.addEventListener("message",(function(e){if(void 0!==e.data["datawrapper-height"]){var t=document.querySelectorAll("iframe");for(var a in e.data["datawrapper-height"])for(var r=0;r<t.length;r++){if(t[r].contentWindow===e.source)t[r].style.height=e.data["datawrapper-height"][a]+"px"}}}))}();</script></div><p class="button-wrapper" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/global-remaining-carbon-budgets-based/comments&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Leave a comment&quot;,&quot;action&quot;:null,&quot;class&quot;:null}" data-component-name="ButtonCreateButton"><a class="button primary" href="https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/p/global-remaining-carbon-budgets-based/comments"><span>Leave a comment</span></a></p><p></p><div class="subscription-widget-wrap-editor" data-attrs="{&quot;url&quot;:&quot;https://ahmedgailani.substack.com/subscribe?&quot;,&quot;text&quot;:&quot;Subscribe&quot;,&quot;language&quot;:&quot;en&quot;}" data-component-name="SubscribeWidgetToDOM"><div class="subscription-widget show-subscribe"><div class="preamble"><p class="cta-caption">Thanks for reading Ahmed&#8217;s Substack! Subscribe for free to receive new posts and support my work.</p></div><form class="subscription-widget-subscribe"><input type="email" class="email-input" name="email" placeholder="Type your email&#8230;" tabindex="-1"><input type="submit" class="button primary" value="Subscribe"><div class="fake-input-wrapper"><div class="fake-input"></div><div class="fake-button"></div></div></form></div></div>]]></content:encoded></item></channel></rss>